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Coupling an Ensemble of Electrons on Superfluid Helium to a

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... with fixed pitch, QE and Fill Factor. A design with a high capacitance then yields a lower charge-to-voltage sensitivity compared to a design with a lower capacitance. For instance, using equally sized n+ diodes or NWELL diodes will result in different sensitivity due to a.o. the difference in capac ...
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... 1. Phase: Production and acceleration of an electron beam When no magnetic field exists, heating the cathode results in a uniform and direct movement of the field from the cathode to the plate (the blue path in Figure 12). The permanent magnetic field bends the electron path. If the electron flow re ...
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Photomultiplier



Photomultiplier tubes (photomultipliers or PMTs for short), members of the class of vacuum tubes, and more specifically vacuum phototubes, are extremely sensitive detectors of light in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. These detectors multiply the current produced by incident light by as much as 100 million times (i.e., 160 dB), in multiple dynode stages, enabling (for example) individual photons to be detected when the incident flux of light is very low. Unlike most vacuum tubes, they are not obsolete.The combination of high gain, low noise, high frequency response or, equivalently, ultra-fast response, and large area of collection has maintained photomultipliers an essential place in nuclear and particle physics, astronomy, medical diagnostics including blood tests, medical imaging, motion picture film scanning (telecine), radar jamming, and high-end image scanners known as drum scanners. Elements of photomultiplier technology, when integrated differently, are the basis of night vision devices.Semiconductor devices, particularly avalanche photodiodes, are alternatives to photomultipliers; however, photomultipliers are uniquely well-suited for applications requiring low-noise, high-sensitivity detection of light that is imperfectly collimated.
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