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Classical Societies:
500BCE-500 CE (Unit 2)
[CHAPTER 12 : ]
Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads
I
LONG DISTANCE TRADE
- Long distance trade existed throughout ancient civ.
- Ancient Civilization
o Before classical age LDT risky and
dangerous
o Ancient civ. had to police realm effectively
o Small kingdoms had no means of controlling
far fetched regions
o Banditry and pirate raids common
- Classical Age
o 2 developments reduce risk of LDT
 Rulers invest heavily in
construction of roads & bridges
 Large imperial states border lands
TRADE NETWORKS IN HELLENISTIC ERA
- LDT increase notably during Hellenistic era
o Colonies established by Alexander
o Colonies of Seleucids of Persia
o Land & sea routes of Ptolemies
- Monsoon System
o Learned from Arab & Indian seamen by
mariners of Ptolemaic Egypt
o Monsoon winds govern sail in Indian Ocean
o Knowledge of winds enable safe sail
- Official Support of LDT
o Expensive investment in military,
construction, bureaucracy to maintain
commerce along land & sea routes
- Long term dividends
o Economic development
o Levy taxes on export/import
SILK ROADS
- Classical empires expand LDT
o Han Empire
o Parthian Empire
o Roman Empire
o Kushan empire
- Overland trade routes collectively called silk roads
due to highest commodity of Chinese silk
- Serve as highways for trade
- Spread of Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity
- Spread of epidemic disease
SPREAD OF BUDDHISM (200s BCE)
- Established in India w/ sponsorship by Ashoka
- Attract merchants as converts
o Merchants explain their beliefs during
travels to others
- Oasis Towns
o First transmitted to oasis towns on the silk
roads
o Oasis towns depend heavily on merchants
for prosperity
o Allow merchants to build monasteries and
invite monks, scribes into community
o Oasis towns become cosmopolitan centers
o Many residents adopt Buddhism which was
the most prominent faith along the silk roads
from 200BCE -1000 CE
- Central Asia
o From oasis towns to C Asia
o Nomads visit oases regularly to trade
o 300 CE spread Buddhism throughout C Asia
- China
o 100-0 BCE foothold in China
o Earliest Buddhists were foreign merchants –
Indians, Parthians, C. Asians
o Early Buddhists observe faith in small
enclaves – as faith of expatriate merchants
o Was not popular for centuries
o 400s CE Chinese begin to respond to
Buddhism favorably
- East Asia
o Post-classical era most popular religion in E
Asia – Japan, Korea, China
- Southeast Asia
o 0-100 CE foothold in Java, Sumatra, Malay
Peninsula, Vietnam, Cambodia, other
islands
o Spread through merchants from India
through Indian Ocean
o Indian influence – “raja” kings
 Rulers adopt title of Indian rulers
 Adopt Sanskrit as written language
 Many rulers convert to Buddhism
 Other promote Hindu cults of Shiva,
Vishnu
 Seek Buddhist/Hindu advisors
1
Classical Societies:
500BCE-500 CE (Unit 2)
[CHAPTER 12 : ]
Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads
I
SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY (100s CE)
Persecution
- Viewed Christians as irreligious – refuse to
participate in state sponsored religious ceremonies
- Viewed as menace to society
o Attacked other religions
o Generate violent conflict
Christian Missionaries
- Fully utilized magnificent Roman roads and sea lanes
to spread religion
- 100-200 CE zealously work to attract converts
Gregory the Wonderworker
- Tireless missionary, reputation for miracles
- Preached Christian doctrine
- Popularized religion in C Anatolia mid 200s
- Expel demons, move boulders, divert river in flood
- Supernatural powers persuade observers into faith
- Late 200s, religion flourished despite imperial
persecution
SW Asia
- 100 CE sizeable community in Mesopotamia & Iran
- Did not dominate SW Asia but persisted even after
spread of Islam (600s CE)
- SW Asian Christian practice greatly influence
practices in Roman empire
o Strict ascetic lifestyle (Indian inspired)
o Sexual abstinence
o Refuse fine foods & comforts
o Complete withdrawal from family
o Inspire monasticism in Mediterranean
- Nestorians
o SW Asian Christianity vs. Mediterranean
o Increasingly went separate ways
o SW Asian Christians become Nestorians
o Nestorius (Early 400s)
 Greek theologian
 Emphasize human nature of Jesus
 Mediterranean church reject views
 Many disciples leave
o Strong organization
 Spread to C. Asia, India, China
SPREAD OF MANICHAEISM
- Example of effective use of silk roads for missions
- Mani (216-272 CE)
o Faith derived from prophet Mani
o Devout Zoroastrian from Babylon
o Deep influence from Christianity &
Buddhism
o Zarathustra as prophet of Persia
o Buddha prophet of India
o Jesus as prophet of Mediterranean
o Sought need for prophet of all humanity and
promoted syncretism of Zoroastrianism,
Christian, Buddhist elements
o Fervent missionary – travel widely
o Create Manichaean church
o Spread throughout Sasanid, Mesopotamia, E.
Mediterranean
- Tenets
o All believers saved to eternal association
with forces of light and good
o Dualism
 World as cosmic struggle between
light/darkness, good/evil
o Asceticism
 Urge rejection of worldly pleasures
 High ethical standards
o “the elect”
 Abstain from marriage,
sexual relation
 Fine clothing, meats,
foods, comforts
o “the hearers”
 Led more conventional lives
 Strict moral code
 Provide food, gifts to elect
- Appeal
 Rational explanation for presence
of good & evil
 Means for salvation
 Contribute to triumph of good over
evil
- Decline
o Zoroastrian leaders urge Sasanid to suppress
movement as threat to public order
 Sasanid emperor sought to use
Zoroastrianism to unify realm
o Roman empire persecute – suspect origin
from rival Sasanid empire
o Largely exterminated by 400-500s CE
o Survived in C. Asia, nomadic Turks
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Classical Societies:
500BCE-500 CE (Unit 2)
[CHAPTER 12 : ]
Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads
I
SPREAD OF EPIDEMIC DISEASE (100s-200s BCE)
Causes
- Spread through LD travelers
- Spread beyond original environment to populations
not immune to diseases
- Lack of medicines to combat them
Types of Diseases
- Smallpox & measles most destructive
- Bubonic plague may also have erupted
Areas of Infection (100-200s CE)
- Han empire
o Epidemics appear later in China
- Roman empire
o 165-180 most devastating outbreak of
smallpox
o Especially virulent in cities
o Killed emperor Marcus Aurelius (180)
o Combination of war & invasions lead to
population decline
o 400-500 population stabilize
o Mid 500s bubonic plague – population
decline throughout Mediterranean
Effects
- Large scale population decline
o Exact figure unknown due to scanty records
- Trade decline
o Contracting of Chinese/Roman economies
- After 200s
o Move towards self-sufficiency
o E Mediterranean continue large integrated
economies
o Smaller regional economies emerge in W
 Italy, Gaul, Spain, NW Africa
- Demography of Persia, India others not as clear
- Contribute to instability in China after Han
- Contribute to fall of Western Roman Empire
CHINA AFTER THE HAN DYNASTY
- Before arrival of epidemics in late 100s, Han dynasty
already in decline
Decline
- Inability to maintain order
- Development of factions among elites
- Land distribution
o Usurpation of Wang Mang (9-23)
o Consolidation of wealth among nobility
o Increased pressure on peasantry
o Yellow Turban uprisings (184 CE)
- Han generals undermine imperial authority
o Allied with landed aristocracy
o Used emperors as puppets
- 220 CE formally abolish Han dynasty & divide
empire to 3 large kingdoms
After Fall of Han
- Spectacle of chaos & disorder
- Nomadic Migration
o Large numbers of nomads migrate to China
o Keep China disunited for over 350 yrs
o 300-400s nomadic ppl establish large
kingdoms & dominate N China
o Nomads adapt Chinese ways
o Take up agriculture, settle
o Marry Chinese, Chinese names
o Ancestry become less & less distinct
o New imperial dynasty able to reconstitute
central authority in N China because of
Sinicization of nomadic ppl
- Decline of Confucianism
o Lost credibility after disintegration of
political order after Han
- Return of Daoism
o As in Warring States Period rise to find
peace in turbulent world
o Originally school of speculative thought
o Appealed mostly to educated elite
o Became more religious than philosophical
o Daoist sages promote salvation to those who
observe doctrines & rituals
o Concoctions for immortality
o Receive attention due to troubled times
o Less competition from Confucians
- Popularity of Buddhism
o Until 300s CE Buddhism largely religion of
foreign merchants – little attraction
o Strong support from nomadic ppl who
migrated to N China
o Missionary efforts attract Chinese as well
o 300s-500s CE Buddhism well established in
China
o Late 500s, important cultural foundation for
newly emerging centralized imperial state
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Classical Societies:
500BCE-500 CE (Unit 2)
[CHAPTER 12 : ]
Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads
I
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Internal Decline
- Succession
o 235-284 CE more than 26 claimants to
imperial throne
o “barracks emperors”
o Most generals who seized power
o Hold power briefly
o Lose power to rival or mutinous troops
o Most die violently
- Size
o After 200s epidemics, regions move towards
self-sufficient economies
o Empire became unmanageable
- Diocletian (284-305 CE)
o Deal w/ problem of vast empire by dividing
empire into 2 administrative districts
 Eastern District
 Anatolia, Syria, Egypt,
Greece
 Western District
 Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain,
N Africa
o Tetrarch better administer vast empire
 Co-emperor & a powerful
lieutenant for each (4 officials)
o Policies
 Bring Rome’s army under firm
control
 Deal w/ crumbling economy by
strengthening imperial currency
 Force govt. to adjust expenditure to
income
 Impose price caps to dampen
inflation
 Economic policies not as successful
as his reforms but help stabilize it
- Constantine (313-337 CE)
o Civil war after Diocletian retire in 305
o Constantine move to consolidate power and
claim himself sole emperor of Rome
o Reunite E & W Roman empire
o Construction of new capital, Constantinople
o Christianity
 1st Christian emperor of Rome
 Vision of power of God
 Edict of Milan – allow Christians to
practice faith openly for 1st time
o Internal problems after Constantine
 Constantine’s successors face same
difficulty of vast empire
 Population decline
o Contracting economy & lack of financial
resources to govern
External Pressures
- Sasanids
o Sasanid topple Parthians 224 CE
o Sasanids & Romans clash in Anatolia, Syria,
Mesopotamia over territorial issues
o Romans suffer devastating blows
o 260 capture & humiliation of Roman
emperor Valerian
o Buffer states reduce intensity of conflict
after 200s
o Intermittent hostility until 500s
- Germanic Invasions
o 400s Germanic invasion ends Western
Roman Empire
o Visigoths
 Migrate to E & N Roman
 Most notable
 From Scandinavia & Russia
 Adopted agriculture
 Adapt Roman society
 Adapt Roman law
 Convert to Christianity
 Translate bible to Visigothic
language
 Contribute soldiers to Roman
armies
 Romans discouraged settlement of
Visigoths in the empire – order
 410 Alaric storm and sack Rome
o Huns
 Late 300s aggressive W migrations
 Turkish C Asian nomads
 Mid 400s Attilla invade W Roman
empire
 Attila didn’t create political
structures so state dissolved after
his death in 453
 Huns place great pressure on
Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals,
Franks, other Germanic peoples
 Germans stream into empire for
refuge
 Little resistance – establish
settlements in W half of empire –
Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, N Africa
where pop. less dense
- 476 CE Germanic general Odovacer depose Romulus
Augustulus (last WR emperor) and end WRE
After Fall of WRE
- East –
o Imperial authority continue for 1000 yrs in E
of empire – Byzantine empire
o During Germanic invasions, concentrate on
wealthier E empire
 Not enough resources to protect all
fronts – build defensive walls in E
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Classical Societies:
500BCE-500 CE (Unit 2)
[CHAPTER 12 : ]
Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads
I
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West
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Roman authority dissolve
Nomadic peoples build successor states
Spain- Vandals, Visigoths
Gaul – Franks
Britain – Angles & Saxons
Italy – Visigoths, Vandals, Lombards, others
CULTURAL CHANGE AFTER FALL OF WRE (500s)
Medieval Europe
- Germanic ppl absorb & adapt Roman tradition
- Adapt and preserve Roman law
- Mixture of Roman & Germanic traditions create
Medieval Europe
Prominence of Christianity
- Most prominent survivor of WRE
- Mid-300s Christians hold important political &
military positions
- Imperial sponsorship
o Constantine
 Establish Christianity as legitimate
religion
 313 Edict of Milan – openly
observe
o Theodosius
 380 proclaim Christianity official
religion of the Roman empire
- Talented converts
o Early Christians from ranks of ordinary ppl
 Struck philosophers and elites as
unsophisticated and unbelievable
 Favored by masses not the elite
o St. Augustine (354-430)
 Bishop of Hippo, N Africa
 Highly educated
 Inspiration from Stoicism & Plato
 Belonged to Manichaeism 9 yrs
 387 convert to Christianity
 Reconcile Christianity w/ GrecoRoman philosophical tradition
 Instrumental in attracting educated
elites to the faith
- Organized Christian Church (200s-300s)
o Early Christians lack cohesiveness due to
lack of recognized leadership
 Conflicting or contradictory
doctrine
 Jesus as mortal, divine or both
 Women as priests
 Powers of Mary
o During turmoil of Roman empire, church
leaders seek doctrinal stability & define
essential tenets that all Christians must
accept
o
o
o
o
o
Standardization of Christian doctrine
promoted by emperors like Constantine who
wanted cultural unity
Search for uniform doctrine spark debates
Late 300s, church reach consensus on 27
books of the New Testament as more
authoritative than other writings – reject
others as misguided or heretical
Standardization by church hierarchy
 5 top religious authorities
 Bishop of Rome (pope)
 Patriarchs of Jerusalem
 Patriarchs of Antioch
 Patriarchs of Alexandria
 Patriarch Constantinople
 Bishops
 Preside over religious
affairs in their districts
(dioceses)
 Dioceses include all
prominent cities of Roman
empire
 Patriarchs & bishops create church
councils to resolve theological
disputes
Theological Debates
 Debate Jesus’ nature
 Council of Nicaea 325
 Council of Chalcedon 451
 Decisions & decrees of church did
not end debate
 Did not prevent divisions
 But defining values considered
orthodox (correct teaching) left
enduring influence on religion
The Pope
 Papa – father, bishop of Rome
 Emerge as spiritual leader of
Christian communities after
imperial authority crumbled in W
 After collapse of WRE, popes &
bishops only organized authority
 Organize local govt.
 Defensive measures
 Convert Germanic ppl
 Cultural unity
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