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Psychology 305: Theories of Personality
Lecture 5
Psychology 305
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May 31th, 3:30-4:30, Kenny 2517
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Lecture 5
The Dispositional and Biological Perspectives
1. How are needs measured?
2. What are the basic principles of evolutionary theory?
3. How have the basic principles of evolutionary theory
been adapted to the study of personality?
4. What hypotheses has the evolutionary approach
generated regarding altruism?
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By the end of today’s class, you should be able to:
1. describe contemporary measures of needs.
2. identify strengths and weaknesses of contemporary
measures of needs.
3. describe natural selection, sexual selection, intrasexual
selection, and intersexual selection.
4. generate examples of distinct forms of selection.
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5. define the term “inclusive fitness.”
6. review research supporting evolutionary hypotheses
related to altruism.
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How are needs measured?
• Several measures have been developed to assess needs.
1. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
 Developed by Murray and Morgan in 1935.
 Currently, the most widely used measure of needs.
 Involves presenting participants with up to 20 blackand-white drawings that depict ambiguous situations.
 Participants are told that they are completing a test of
creative imagination.
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 Instructions:
“I am going to show you some pictures, one at a time,
and your task will be to make up a story for each card.
In your story, be sure to tell what has led up to the
event shown in the picture, describe what is happening
at the moment, what the characters are feeling and
thinking, and give the outcome. Tell a complete story
with a beginning, middle, and end. Do you
understand? I will write your stories verbatim as
you tell them. Here’s the first card” (Murray, 1943).
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 In developing the measure, Murray and Morgan
assumed that people’s needs influence how they
interpret and perceive external stimuli, particularly
ambiguous stimuli.
 The measure is referred to as a projective test because
it is based on the assumption that people project their
needs onto the stimuli that comprise the test.
 Murray used the term “apperception” to describe the
process of projecting needs onto external stimuli;
apperception may be conscious or unconscious.
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 The stories that a participant generates are analyzed
to identify his/her dominant needs; this is
accomplished by counting the number of references
that the participant makes to specific needs.
 The dominant needs that are identified are thought to
be of central importance to the participant and to form
the defining characteristics of his or her personality.
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E.g.,
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Interpretation 1
This is a picture of a woman who all of her life has been a
very suspicious and conniving person. She’s looking in the
mirror and she sees reflected behind her an image of what
she will be as an old woman—still a suspicious, conniving
sort of person. She can’t stand the thought that that’s what
her life will eventually lead her to and she smashes the
mirror and runs out of the house screaming and goes out of
her mind and lives in an institution for the rest of her life.
Dominant needs: n Abasement, n Dominance, ….
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Interpretation 2
This woman has always emphasized beauty in her life. As a
little girl she was praised for being pretty and as a young
woman was able to attract lots of men with her beauty.
While secretly feeling anxious and unworthy much of the
time, her outer beauty helped to disguise these feelings from
the world and, sometimes, from herself. Now that she is
getting on in years and her children are leaving home, she is
worried about the future. She looks in the mirror and
imagines herself as an old hag—the worst possible person
she could become, ugly and nasty—and wonders what the
future holds for her. It is a depressing time for her.
Dominant needs: n Abasement, n Defendance, n Exhibition ….
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E.g. 2,
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Interpretation 1
After years of abuse, this woman has done the unthinkable
… she has shot her husband. She had wanted to leave him
for several years, but she felt hopelessly trapped. He
always told her that if she left, he would find her and kill her.
Despite having taken her power back, she is grief-stricken.
After all, she did love him at one time. She knows that she
must now go to the police to report her crime. Although she
does not know what their reaction will be, she hopes that
they will understand that she had no alternatives.
Dominant needs: n Abasement, n Change, n Defendance ….
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Interpretation 2
This woman has just watched her husband die. He had
been sick for some time and both he and she knew that
the end was near. He was her first and only love—her
soul mate. As he was dying, he told her of his neverending love for her. Now that he is gone, she doesn’t
know what she is going to do. She feels that she has lost
the most important person in her life. Outside their
bedroom, she is overcome by feelings of despair,
ultimately falling to the ground and asking God to take her
life too.
Dominant needs: n Affiliation, n Nurturance, n Succorance ….
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2. Personality Research Form (PRF)
 Developed by Jackson in 1984; his goal was to provide
a measure of needs that could be scored more
objectively than the TAT.
 A self-report measure comprised of 352 T/F items; the
items assess a subset of 22 of Murray’s needs.
 E.g., items used to assess n Achievement:
I look more to the future than to the past or present.
I enjoy situations that allow me to use my skill.
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 Participants’ responses to the items are used to
create personality profiles relating to the 22 needs.
E.g.,
Jill is highly motivated by the needs for aggression,
dominance, exhibition, and impulsivity.
Jack is highly motivated by the needs for affiliation,
harmavoidance, and nurturance.
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3. Multi-Motive Grid
 Developed by Schmalt in 1999.
 Combines features of the TAT and self-report measures
such as the PRF.
 Assesses 3 needs: n Achievement, n Affiliation, and
n Power.
 n Achievement and n Affiliation were identified by
Murray; n Power reflects a need to have an impact, to
have prestige, and to feel strong in comparison to others.
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 Some psychologists refer to these needs as the “Big
Three”—i.e., as the 3 fundamental dimensions
underlying Murray’s more elaborate list of needs.
 Involves presenting participants with 14 pictures that
reflect situations linked to achievement, affiliation,
and power.
 After viewing each picture, participants are asked to
respond to questions that assess the 3 needs using
“yes” or “no” responses.
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E.g.,
You are proud because
you can do it ………....……...Y / N
You fear the power
of others ………..…………… Y / N
You are glad you
have met ….…….........……... Y / N
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E.g.,
You are afraid that you are
boring others………....…….....Y / N
You fear the power
of others ………..…………..… Y / N
Your reputation may be
negatively affected here…..... Y / N
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 Participants’ responses to the questions are used
to create personality profiles relating to the 3 needs.
E.g.,
Jack is highly motivated by the needs for achievement
and affiliation.
Jill is highly motivated by the needs achievement and
power.
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Take a few minutes to consider … the “muddiest” point.
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Biological Perspective: Evolutionary Approach
What are the basic principles of evolutionary theory?
• According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, across
successive generations of a species, organisms develop
characteristics that enhance their ability to survive and
reproduce (i.e., adaptations).
• Darwin maintained that there are two processes through
which organisms develop these characteristics:
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1. Natural selection
 A process through which organisms develop
characteristics that enhance their ability to survive.
 Organisms that possess characteristics that enhance
their ability to survive are more likely to live to
reproductive age and to pass these characteristics on to
the next generation.
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 Offspring that inherit these characteristics, in turn, are
more likely to live to reproductive age and to pass the
characteristics on to yet the next generation.
 Through this process, characteristics that enhance the
organism’s ability to survive increase in frequency
across successive generations of the species until
they come to characterize virtually all members of the
species.
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2. Sexual selection
 A process through which organisms develop
characteristics that enhance their ability to reproduce,
but not necessarily their ability to survive.
 Darwin proposed this process after observing that
organisms within some species possess characteristics
that enhance their ability to reproduce but hinder their
ability to survive.
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 Darwin maintained that there are 2 mechanisms through
which sexual selection occurs:
(a) Intrasexual selection
 Occurs when same sex organisms compete for the
sexual interest of the opposite sex.
 Organisms that possess characteristics that enable
them to “win” the sexual interest of the opposite sex are
more likely to mate and to pass these characteristics on
to the next generation.
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 Offspring that inherit these characteristics, in turn, are
more likely to mate and to pass the characteristics on
to yet the next generation.
 Through this process, the characteristics that enabled
the victors to win increase in frequency across
successive generations of the species until they
come to characterize virtually all members of that sex
of the species.
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(b) Intersexual selection
 Occurs when organisms of one sex prefer to mate with
organisms of the opposite sex that possess specific,
desirable characteristics.
 Organisms that possess characteristics that are
desirable to the opposite sex are more likely to mate and
to pass these characteristics on to the next generation.
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 Offspring that inherit these characteristics, in turn, are
more likely to mate and to pass the characteristics on
to yet the next generation.
 Through this process, characteristics that are desirable
to the opposite sex increase in frequency across
successive generations of the species until they come to
characterize virtually all members of that sex of the
species.
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 Example characteristics:
(a) Natural selection: the preference for sweet, fatty, and
salty foods in humans.
(b) Intrasexual competition: the Ariel Hover Display of
the male Bronzed Cowbird.
(c) Intersexual selection: the brilliant plumage of the
male peacock.
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• In recent years, evolutionary biologists have come to
believe that natural selection and sexual selection
operate through differential gene reproduction.
• That is, they have come to believe that organisms
with highly adaptive characteristics pass their genes
on to subsequent generations at a greater frequency
than organisms with less adaptive characteristics.
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How have the basic principles of evolutionary theory
been adapted to the study of personality?
• Evolutionary psychologists have adapted the principles
of evolutionary theory to the study of personality.
• They believe that our basic psychological processes are
the product of natural selection and sexual selection.
• Our psychological processes are seen as adaptations to
the survival and reproductive challenges faced by our
ancestors.
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What hypotheses has the evolutionary approach
generated regarding altruism?
• Altruism: Refers to a desire to help others, even at
the risk of one’s own well-being.
• After the discovery of genes, Hamilton (1964) proposed
the theory of inclusive fitness. This theory maintains that
organisms are motivated to enhance their own survival
and reproductive potential, as well as the survival and
reproductive potential of those who are genetically
similar to them.
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• On the basis of Hamilton’s theory, evolutionary
psychologists generated two hypotheses regarding
altruism.
 Hypothesis A: Helping behaviour increases as the
degree of genetic overlap increases between the helper
and the recipient.
 Hypothesis B: Helping behaviour increases as the
reproductive potential of one’s kin member (i.e., relative)
increases.
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• Burnstein et al. (1994) tested both hypotheses in the
U.S. and Japan.
 Asked participants to imagine that people were
asleep in a rapidly burning building.
 Told participants they could only rescue one person.
 Asked participants to indicate who they would be
most willing to save.
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 In order to test Hypothesis A, participants were
presented with people who varied in their degree of
genetic overlap with the participant.
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 Results consistent with
Hypothesis A.


Tendency
to Help


.50
Highly Related
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.125
Degree of
Genetic Overlap
.00
Not Related
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 In order to test Hypothesis B, the researchers
conducted 2 studies. In the first study, participants
were presented with kin members who varied in age.
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 Results consistent with
Hypothesis B.


Tendency
to Help



1
10
18
45
75
Age of Kin (Years)
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 Presumably, under conditions of ample resources, the
reproductive potential of a 1 year old is greater than that
of a 10 year old.
 Interestingly, when researchers asked participants to
imagine that they lived in a country inflicted with
famine (i.e., under conditions of limited resources), a
curvilinear relationship emerged between the tendency
to help and age.
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 Results consistent with
Hypothesis B.


Tendency
to Help



1
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10
18
Age of Kin (Years)
45
75
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 Presumably, under conditions of limited resources, the
reproductive potential of a 10 year old is greater than
that of a 1 year old.
 In the second study designed to test Hypothesis B,
participants were presented with kin members who
varied in health.
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 Results consistent with
Hypothesis B.

Tendency
to Help


Healthy


Sick

.50
Highly Related
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.25
Degree of
Genetic Overlap
.125
Not Highly Related
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Lecture 5
The Dispositional and Biological Perspectives
1. How are needs measured?
2. What are the basic principles of evolutionary theory?
3. How have the basic principles of evolutionary theory
been adapted to the study of personality?
4. What hypotheses has the evolutionary approach
generated regarding altruism?
Psychology 305
46