Download Revolution and Enlightenment

Revolution and Enlightenment
Chpt 17.1
I Background to the Revolution
A. Medieval scientists (known as natural philosophers), did not make observations of world & nature as much
as they relied on ancient authorities like Aristotle – 15th & 16th c saw adoption of new views & methods
B. Renaissance humanists studied newly discovered worksof Ptolemy, Archimedes, Plato, & other ancient
thinkers – learned that some disagreed w/ Aristotle & other accepted authorities
C. Technical problems (calculating weight a ship could hold) caused movement towards observations &
measurement.
1. new instruments: telescope & microscope made fresh observations possible
2. coupled with printing, ideas spread more rapidly
D. study of mathematics in Renaissance – contributed to scientific achievements of 16th & 17th c. – grtst
scientists of day believed secrets of nature written in lang. of mathematics
E. intellectuals – Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, & others – devel. new theories that became foundation
of Scientific Revolution
II A Revolution in Astronomy
A. Ptolemy – born 2nd c, was ages grtst astronomers
1. Mediev. Philosophers constructed geocentric (Earth at center) model of universe called Ptolemic system
2. a series of concentric spheres with a motionless Earth in middle
B. according to him, planets are in different, crystal-like spheres, which rotate; this accounts for movements of
heavenly bodies.
1. 10th sphere is “primary mover” - it moves itself and gives motion to other spheres
2. beyond this is Heaven, where God and all the saved souls reside
C. Nicholas Copernicus – from Poland published his work, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres –
where he promoted a heliocentric (Sun is center) system
1. was more accurate than Ptolemy’s
2. further, not only did planets revolve around sun, Moon revolved around Earth while rotating on its axis
D. Johannes Kepler – German mathematician, helped destroy Ptolemy’s system
1. observations – confirmed Sun was at center of univ.
2. he also tracked elliptical orbits of planets where Ptolemy insisted they were circular
E. Galileo Galilei– Italian scientist & mathematician – answered question of what planets composed of
1. 1st Eur. to make regular observations w/ telescope
2. saw: mts. on Moon, 4 moons orbiting Jupiter
F. Galileo’s work began to make Europeans aware of new view of univ.
1. got in trouble w/ Cath. Church – ordered him to abandon new system which contradicted Church and
Bible
2. to believe his system, one had to believe the heavens were not spiritual but material- large following of
other astronomers
G. Isaac Newton – English mathematics prof. at Cambridge Univ – responded to the question: What explains
motion in the universe?
H. He published his views in: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia).
1.Defined 3 laws of motion in univ
2. most impt - universal law of gravitation (every obj in univ is attracted to every other obj by force called
gravity) – this explained why planets traveled in elliptical orbits, & not go off in straight line
I. he gave world picture of univ as huge, regulated, & uniform – dominated world theory until Einstein’s
theory of relativity
III Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry
A. Late Mid. Ages- medicine still dominated by teaching of Greek physician Galen whose views were often
wrong b/c he used animals, not people for dissection
B. New anantomy of 16th c – based on work of Andreas Vesalius who published On the Fabric of the Human
Body.
1. reported results after dissecting human bodies – professor of surgery at Univ of Padua
2. his view much more accurate of individual organs & structure of man
3. he did erroneously believe humans had 2 kinds of blood
C. William Harvey – published On the Motion of the Heart & Body – this showed heart, not liver, was
beginning point of blood’s circulation
1. he also showed same blood runs through veins & arteries & makes a complete circuit through body
2. his work was based on close observations & experiments
D. Robert Boyle – his work showed chemistry was based on close observation & experiment
1. formulated Boyle’s Law about gases – the volume of a gas varies w/pressure exerted on it
2. 18th c. – Antoine Lavoisier, founder of modern chemistry, invented system for naming chemical
elements
IV Women and the Origins of Modern Science
A. Margaret Cavendish – one of most prominent female scientists – criticized belief that humans, through
science, were the masters of nature ( said “NO WAY!”)
B. Maria Winkelman – German astronomer who trained under husband & discovered comet – denied post of
assistant astronomer at Berlin Acad b/c woman & it would interfere with domestic roles! (BOO!)
V.Descartes and Reason
A. Rene Descartes – French philosopher – reflects W. view of humankind during Sci. Rev. – only
one
thing to be sure of & that is his own existence – so things were only true if his reason said so
B. He asserted belief: “I think, therefore I am” – he could doubt the existence of the material world
1. material world & mental world – two different realms; he separated mind and matter
2. made matter inert & indep. of observer that be investigated by a detached reality
C. he was called father of Modern Rationalism – system of thought based on idea reason is chief source of
knowledge
VI The Scientific Method
A. during time period, ppl concerned w/ how best to understand universe – created scientific method w/ help of
Francis Bacon
B. he argued – arrive at conclusions only after inductive reasoning
C. science should serve human purposes
17.2
I Path to Enlightenment
A. Enlightenment – an 18th c. philosophical movement that grew out of Sci. Rev.
1. these philosophers hoped to make a better society by applying sci. method to social problems
2. talked about reason, natural law, hope, & progress
B. these philosophers thought society governed by natural law just as Newtonian phys. universe was
C. John Locke’s theory of knowledge greatly influenced Enligt. thinkers
1. argued – ppl are born w/ mind that is a blank slate & knowl. comes through 5 senses
2. the right influences could create a new kind of society by creating new understanding
D. these thinkers hoped to discover w/ sci meth, the laws that all institutions should follow to produce ideal
society
II Philosophes and Their Ideas
A. Enlight intellectuals – called philosophe – most of which were writers, professors, journalists, & social
reformers
B. Ideas of these influenced entire W. world
1. change the world by rational criticism of beliefs in all areas, incl relg & pol
2. 3 greatest: Montesquieu, Voltaire, & Diderot
C. Montesquieu – studied gov’ts to find natural laws governing social & pol relationships & found 3 kinds:
republics, despotism, & monarchies
D. Analyzed Eng monarchy & offered ideas most known for:
1. gov’t should function through checks & balances called: separation of powers
2. this structure gives grtst freedom & security for state
3. influenced American Constitution
E. greatest figure – Voltaire – a prolific writer of novels, plays, histories, letters, & essays
F. best known for criticism of Christianity and toleration
1. idea of deism – relg philosophy based on reason & natural law
2. believe world is a clock that God created & set according to nat laws & then let run w/out his intervention
G. Denis Diderot’s – impt contribution to Enlightenment, was: Encyclopedia
1. a 28-volume collection of knowl
2. articles attacked old Fr society & argued for relg toleration & social improvements to make it more
humane
III Toward a New Social Science
A. Enlightenment’s belief that nat laws of society led to creation of social sciences (economics & political
science)
B. French Physicrats & the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith – founded modern economics
1. laissez-faire – ppl should be free to pursue their econ self-interests & then all of society would benefit
2. the gov’t should not interfere w/ natural econ processes by imposing regulations
C. Smith – went on to say that gov’t only had 3 legitimate functions:
1. protection from invasion (army)
2. defending against injustice (police)
3. maintaining public works like roads and canals
D. Also for many centuries, punishments for crimes were cruel as a deterrent to crime during a time when
police were weak to capture criminals
E. 1764 – Cesare Beccaria argued that punishments should not be brutal and there should be no capital
punishment
IV The Later Enlightenment
A. new generation of philosophes emerged by 1760 of which Jean-Jacques Rousseau was most famous
1. he argued that while ppl formed gov’ts & laws to protect their property, these relationships enslaved them
2. presented idea of social contract – members of society agree to be governed by general will which is best
for society as a whole
B. further argued that education should nurture, not restrict children’s natural instincts – emotions are impt to
human development
C. critics accesed him of not practicing what he preached – his children were sent to orphanages & he believed
women were naturally subservient to men
V Rights of Women
A. Mary Wollstonecraft – founder of European & American movement for women’s rights – that women were
as rational as men & as capable of being responsible citizens
B. Other points on contention – power of men over women was wrong; women should have same rights as me
in educ, economic, & pol life
VI Social World of Enlightenment
A. ideas most known in upper class & literate, although aiming for new middle class
B. magazines & newspapers 1st published for general public – in London 1702
C. ideas of period also spread to salons – gatherings in elegant homes of wealthy – women hosts could sway
pol opinions, influence history and artistic taste
VII Religion
A. most philosophes attacked Christian churches, but most Europeans were devout believers – led to new relg
movements when Protestants desired a greater depth of relg experiences
B. one movement – Methodism by John Wesley where he had a mystical experience in whch “the gift of
God’s grace” assured his salvation – he became missionary of this idea
C. preached to many in open fields – their believers stressed importance of hard work
D. Methodism became separate Protestant group after his death
17.3
I The Arts
A. large impact on culture
B. European monarchs tried to emulate Versailles but in baroque, not Fr. classical
1. new architecture style – rococo – stressed grace, charm, & gentle action
2. it was highly secular, valuing the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, & love- Antoine Watteau – grtst painter
C. Enchantment & enthusiasm play a part – as seen in churches and palaces
D. 18th c – one of grtst periods for music – 2 standouts in baroque style
1. Johann Sebastian Bach & George Frederick Handel
2. Bach – a compser known for Mass in B Minor; Handel known for Messiah
E. Franz Joseph Haydn & Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – standouts of classical style
F. Novel developed in Europe at this time
II Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism
A. Philosophes believed in nat. rts for all ppl – ones found in Dec of Indep (relg worship, speech, press,
assembly, property,& pursuit of happiness
B. Also believed enlightened rulers were to est & preserve these rts – to nurture the arts, sciences, & educ and
enforce laws fairly over ALL sub.
C. Enlightened absolutism – term once used to describe monarchies that emerged at this time who tried to
govern by Enlightenment principles but still retaining royal power
D. Enlightened absolutism – can you have that? 3 states tried to make reforms: Prussia, Austria, & Russia
E. Frederick Wm I and Frederick II – made Prussia a Eur power in 18th c, but Fred I tried to maintain a highly
efficient beauracracy that believed in: obedience, honor, and service to the king
F. Nobles who owned large estates were officiers in army and believed in: duty, obedience, sacrifice, and
loyalty to kg
G. Fred II, Fred the Great, was one of Eur’s most cultured kgs – adopted some Enlight ideas like abolishing
torture (except murder & treason), granted limited freedom of speech and press, and relg toleration
H. Fred II used father as role model
I.
Austria was a major power whose empire was centralized by empress Maria Theresa in 1740 which also
strengthened the state; her successor, Josheph II, more influenced by philosophes
J. Joseph II – abolished serfdom & death penalty; recognized equality before the law, & enacted relg reforms
of toleration, but his programs failed b/c nobles upset about serfs freed; serfs confused by sudden changes
K. In Russia – several weak rulers after Peter – Catherine the Great, German wife of murdered Peter III, came
to throne – knew ideas of Englight – asked Diderot to speak in Russia – she did not adopt Enlight ideas b/c
lacked support of nobility
L. Conditions for peasants worsened – serfdom expanded to newer parts of empire – She expanded Rus
territory & gained 50% of Poland
M. Enlightened absolutism – questionable – these 3 never did really adopt the ideas & reforms –more
concerned w/ well-being of st & state’s powers
III War of the Austrian Succession
A. Maria Theresa (Aust) succeeded father to throne after his death – so thePrussian kg took advantage –
invaded Aust Silesia while a WOMAN on the throne. Fr allied w/ Purssia, & Britain w/ Austria
B. This was called the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) –fought in Eur & N.Amer. 1748, all
parties made peace w/ Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle – all territories except Silesia were ret’d to orig owners
IV The Seven Year’s War
A. 2 new rivalries took center stage: Fr & Brit over colonial emp in Aust & Prus over Silesia which Maria
Theresa refused
B. Fr & Aust had long been rivals, but Fr abandoned Prus to side w/ Aust – Rus, thinking Prus a threat, also
joined alliance, so Brit allied w/ Prus – ANOTHER WORLDWIDE WAR! – Eur, India, & N. Amer
C. Superb Prus army was able to defeat Fr, Aust, & Russ for awhile – finally worn down, Fred I facing disaster
until Peter III w/drew from war who greatly admired Prus leader
D. A stalemat lead to peace 1763 at Treaty of Paris where all occupied terr were ret’d & Aust officially
recognized Prus’s permanent cont of Silesia
E. struggle b/w Brit & Fr during this time outside of Eur was known as the Great War for Empire – sheer
persistence made Brit win out in India, causing Fr to w/draw for good
F. grtst conflicts of 7 Yr’s War took place in N. Amer. Fr colonies (Canada & LA) were thinly populated
trading outposts b/c Fr settlers did not want to move to Amer while 13 Brit colonies were thickly populated
by 1750 & quite prosperous (called French and Indian War)
G. Brit & Fr – fought in waterways of Gulf of St. Lawrence in Can & in Ohio R Valley. Fr tried to est forts to
keep Brit from expanding into this area – the Native Americans viewed Fr as traders & not settlers and thus
aided them
H. Fr were winning at first – but Wm Pitt the Elder (Prime Min) revived Brit’s cause – focused Brit navy agst
Fr colonial forces & defeated Fr navy
I. Brit also scored land victories in Grt Lakes & Ohio Riv Val, causing Fr to make peace – the same Treaty of
Paris in 1763, transferred Can & all lands east of Miss to Brit. Spain, an ally of Fr, transf Florida to Brit
control & Fr gave Spain Louisiana
J. 1763 – Brit is world’s grtst colonial power
17.4
I Colonial Empires in Latin America
A. Spanish & Portuguese colonized Americas – then new civiliz arose we call Latin America, proving
colonies develop differently from parent country.
B. It was a multiracial society where Eur & Nat Amer intermarried
1. Mestizos – children of Eur & Nat Amer
2. Mulattoes – children of Eur & Af
C. Port & Sp sought ways to profit from colonies –
1. gold & silver
2. farming more lucrative
3. large landowner was created who became dependent on peasants (lasting part of Lat Am)
D. trade b/w parent country & colony – was profitable
1. Sp & Port regulated to keep others out
2. 18th c – Fr & Brit too powerful to keep out of Lat Am mkts
E. colonies of Port Brazil & Sp Lat Am lasted over 300 yrs giving colonial officials much power in carrying
out imperial policies
F. Eur rulers – determined to spread Christianity
1. Cath missionaries spread thru colonies
2. brought Nat Am into missions where converted, taught trades, & encouraged to farm
3. Missionaries could then control lives of Nat Am
G. Cath church – built schools where Nat Am taught to read, write, & do arithm (women could even enter
convents as nuns)
H. Nuns – worked to run schools & hospitals – one was Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, who urged for women to
be educated
I. She was also a well-known Lat Amer literary figure – she entered convernt to write poetry & plays- she was
rejected as student to enter Univ of Mex b/c female
II Britain and British North America
A. United Kingdom of Grt Brit – came into being 1707 when the gov’ts of Eng & Scot united so term British
refers to both British & Scots
B. Monarch & Parliamaent shared power in 18th c – Parl was gradually getting upper hand b/c had power to
make laws, levy taxes, & pass budget
C. New dynasty – Hanoverians – took power 1714.
1. 1st king, George I – were allowed to “handle” Parl and thus were powerful
2. Robert Walpole – was prime minister 1721-1742
D. middle class wanted Brit’s trade & emp expanded
1. North Amer – one place to expand b/c they contrl’d Can & 13 colonies
2. merchants in these colonial ports (Boston, Philadelphia, New York, & Charleston) did not want
Brit gov’t to run their affairs b/c they had own legislatures & acted independently
III The American Revolution
A. After 7 Yrs War - Brit needed more revenue from colonies
1. 1765 – Parl imposed Stamp Act
2. printed materials (legal documents) & newspapers had to carry stamp to prove payment to Brit
3. opposition caused it to be repealed in 1766
B. Am colonies & Grt Brit had numerous crises throughout 1770’s
1. First Continental Congress convened 1774
2. fighting b/w Brit & colonists erupted at Lexington & Concord 1775
3. 1776 – signing of Jefferson’s Dec of Indep formally declared intent to be indep
C. Colonies received help from foreign countries
1. Fr – supplied troops, arms, & men and formally recognized the Am state in 1777
2. Sp & Dutch joined in agst Brit
3. volunteer Am forces finally defeated the professionally trained Brit army led by Cornwallis at Yorktown
4. Treaty of Paris – signed 1783 which recognized the Am colonies & gave them control of the western
territory from the Appalachians to the Miss River
IV The Birth of a New Nation
A. 13 former colonies – now states w/ a new social contract
1. little interest in forming a country w/ strong central gov’t
2. each kept to its own affairs as demonstrated by Articles of Confederation
3. It did not take long to see how ineffective Articles were in dealing w/nation’s problems
B. 1787 – delegates met to revise Articles – this meeting became Constitutional Convention – who wrote a
new plan for a nat’l gov’t
C. the proposed Consitution created a federal plan – where power is shared b/w nat’l & state gov’ts, giving the
nat’l gov’t right to: levy taxes, raise an army, regulate trade, & create a nat’l currency
D. federal gov’t – divided into 3 branches w/ a system of checks & balances: executive (president), had the
right to execute laws, veto legislature’s acts, supervise foreign affairs, & direct military forces
E. the legislative – consisted of Senate, elected by state state legislature, and the House of Representatives,
elected by people; the judicial (courts) were to enforce Constitution as “Supreme Law of Land”
F. promise of a Bill of Rts helped get Constitution adopted – 10 amendments guaranteed freedom of relg,
speech, press, petition, & assembly. It also gave ppl rights to bear arms and be protected from unreasonable
searches & arrests – also gave right to trial by jury, due process of law, & protections of property.
G. Many of these rights were derived from the natural rights proposed by ppl of Enlightenment during 18 th c in
Europe