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Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures
Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures
 Operating System Services
 User Operating System Interface
 System Calls
 Types of System Calls
 System Programs
 Operating System Design and Implementation
 Operating System Structure
 Virtual Machines
 Operating System Generation
 System Boot
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Objectives
 To describe the services an operating system provides to users,
processes, and other systems
 To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating system
 To explain how operating systems are installed and customized
and how they boot
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Operating System Services
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:

User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)

Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface
(GUI), Batch (Files)

Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into
memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)

I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve
a file or an I/O device. For specific devices, special functions may be
desired (such as recording to a CD or blanking a CRT screen). Users
usually cannot control I/O devices directly.

File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Obviously, programs need to read and write files and directories, create
and delete them, search them, list file information, permission
management.
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Operating System Services (Cont.)
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user (Cont):

Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network


Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors

May occur in the CPU and memory hardware (e.g. memory error), in
I/O devices (e.g. parity error, connection failure), in user program
(e.g. arithmetic overflow).

For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing

Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system
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Operating System Services (Cont.)

Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing among the users.

Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them

Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory,
and file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O
devices) may have general request and release code.

Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources. May be used so that users can be billed, or for
accumulating statistics (used in system reconfiguration to improve services).

Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or
networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other

Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled

Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication
(passwording), extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid
access attempts

If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted
throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
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User Operating System Interface - CLI
 CLI allows direct command entry

Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems program

Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells (e.g. C shell,
Korn shell,... on UNIX/Linux).

Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it

Sometimes commands built-in,
–

A command to delete a file may cause the command
interpreter to jump to a section of its code, set up parameters
and make the appropriate system call.
sometimes just names of programs
–
rm file.txt command in UNIX loads and executes rm file
which contains the complete code for the function.
–
Adding new features doesn’t require shell modification
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User Operating System Interface - GUI
 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor

Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc

Clicking mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various
actions (provide information, options, execute function, open
directory (known as a folder)

Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces

Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell

Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available

Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)
 There has been significant development in GUI designs from various
open source projects.
 The design of useful and friendly interface is not a direct function of OS.
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System Calls
 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++), certain low
level tasks may be written in assembly language.
 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Program Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
 Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API
for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX,
Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine
(JVM)
 Why use APIs rather than system calls?

To simplify level of detail.
 Program portability
(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic)
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Example of System Calls
 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another
file
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Common APIs
 Win32 API for Windows systems
 POSIX API for UNIX/LINUX, Mac OS X
 Java API for JVM.
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Example of Standard API

Consider the ReadFile() function in the Win32 API—a function for reading
from a file

A description of the parameters passed to ReadFile()

HANDLE file—the file to be read

LPVOID buffer—a buffer where the data will be read into and written
from

DWORD bytesToRead—the number of bytes to be read into the buffer

LPDWORD bytesRead—the number of bytes read during the last read

LPOVERLAPPED ovl—indicates if overlapped I/O is being used
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System Call Implementation
 Typically, a number associated with each system call

System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to
these numbers
 The system call interface invokes intended system call in OS kernel
and returns status of the system call and any return values
 The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented

Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a
result call

Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API

Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built
into libraries included with compiler)
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API – System Call – OS Relationship
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Standard C Library Example
 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call
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System Call Parameter Passing
 Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired
system call
 Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS
and call
 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
 Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address
of block passed as a parameter in a register
 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program
and popped off the stack by the operating system
 Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

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Parameter Passing via Table
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Types of System Calls
 Process control
 File management
 Device management
 Information maintenance
 Communications
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Types of System Calls
 Process control

end, abort

load, execute

create process, terminate process

get process attributes, set process attributes

wait for time

wait event, signal event

allocate and free memory
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Types of System Calls
 File management

create file, delete file

open, close

read, write, reposition

get file attributes, set file attributes
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Types of System Calls
 Device management

request device, release device

read, write, reposition

get device attributes, set device attributes

logically attach or detach devices
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Types of System Calls
 Information maintenance

get time or date, set time or date

get system data, set system data

get process, file, or device attributes

set process, file, or device attributes
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Types of System Calls
 Communications

create, delete communication connection

send, receive messages

transfer status information

attach or detach remote devices
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Process Control
 Abnormal termination causes memory dump to be examined by debugger.

A program “trace” lists each instruction as it is executed.
 Normal or abnormal termination transfer control to the command interpreter.
 Where to return control when a loaded program terminates?

To the existing program (whose memory image must be saved)

Both programs continue concurrently.
 Many OSs provide a time profile of a program to indicate the amount of time
that the program executes at a particular location. Requires a tracing facility or
regular timer interrupts.
 MS-DOS is single tasking, FreeBSD is multitasking example. MS-DOS loads
the program into memory, writing over most of itself to give program memory.
After program runs, portion of command interpreter not overwritten reloads the
rest of command interpreter from disk. In FreeBSD the command interpreter
may continue running concurrently. Processes may run in the background and
if so they cannot receive input directly from keyboard because shell is using it.
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MS-DOS execution
(a) At system startup (b) running a program
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FreeBSD Running Multiple Programs
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File Management
 “create” and “delete” system calls requires the name of the file and
some of the file’s attributes. “read”, “write”, “reposition” and “close”
are used for files
 We may need same sets of operations for directories.
 Getting/setting attributes for both
 Some systems provide more calls like “move” and “copy”.
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Device Management
 The various resources controlled by the OS can be thought of as devices.

Physical devices (e.g. tapes)

Abstract or virtual devices (e.g. files)
 Request/release (explicit use).

The potential for device contention and deadlock.
 The similarity between I/O devices and files

Merged into a combined file/device structure
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Communication
 Message-passing model

Direct communication

Or Indirect communication through a “mailbox”

The name of other communicator must be known


Recipient “accepts” connection call.


Host name + Process name
Can be “daemons”.
Useful for exchanging small amount of data.
 Shared memory model

Processes agree that one process accesses other’s memory.

The form of the data and the location are determined by the
processes and and are not under OS control.

Processes ensure they don’t write to the same place simultaneously.

Allows maximum speed.
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System Programs
 System programs provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution. They can be divided into:

File manipulation

Status information

File modification

Programming language support

Program loading and execution

Communications

Application programs
 Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system programs,
not the actual system calls
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Solaris 10 dtrace Following System Call
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System Programs

Provide a convenient environment for program development and execution

Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are
considerably more complex

File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and
generally manipulate files and directories

Status information

Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory,
disk space, number of users

Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging
information

Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or
other output devices

Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve
configuration information
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System Programs (cont’d)
 File modification

Text editors to create and modify files
 Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text
 Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers,
debuggers and interpreters sometimes provided
 Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable
loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems
for higher-level and machine language
 Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual
connections among processes, users, and computer systems
 Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens,
browse web pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in
remotely, transfer files from one machine to another
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Operating System Design and Implementation
 Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some
approaches have proven successful
 Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely
 Start by defining goals and specifications
 Affected by choice of hardware, type of system (batch, time shared,
single/multiuser, distributed, real time)
 User goals and System goals

User goals – operating system should be convenient to use,
easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast

System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient
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Operating System Design and Implementation (Cont.)
 Important principle to separate
Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?
 Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide what
will be done

The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important
principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to
be changed later

A general mechanism insensitive to changes in policy desirable

Microkernel-based OSs take the separation of mechanism and
policy to one extreme by implementing a basic set of primitive
building blocks. These blocks are almost policy-free allowing
more advanced mechanisms and policies to be added


Solaris uses loadable tables for scheduling. Depending on
the table, system can be time-shared, batch, real time,...
Policy decisions are important for all resource allocation.
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Operating System Implementation
 They are most commonly written in C/C++.

Compact code, easy debugging, portability

After the system is written and is working correctly, bottleneck
routines (like memory manager and CPU scheduler) can be
replaced with assembly language equivalents.

To identify bottlenecks, we must be able to monitor system
performance.
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Simple Structure
 MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least space

Not divided into modules

Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well separated

Application programs are able to access the basic I/O routines to
write directly to the display and disk drives (so, vulnerable to
crashes)
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MS-DOS Layer Structure
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Layered Approach
 The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built
on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the user interface.
 With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions
(operations) and services of only lower-level layers

Simplicity of construction and debugging
 A layer does not need to know how operations of lower layers are
implemented (information hiding)
 Careful planning is necessary. E.g. the device driver for the disk space used
by virtual memory must be at a lower layer than the memory management
routines. In other cases, there may be interdependencies.
 Less efficient (calling many layer’s functions takes time. Each layer add
overhead.
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Layered Operating System
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UNIX
 UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating
system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two
separable parts

Systems programs

The kernel

Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware

Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level
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UNIX System Structure
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Microkernel System Structure
 Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space
 Minimal process and memory management and a communication facility
 Communication takes place between user modules using message passing
with the microkernel
 Benefits:

Easier to extend a microkernel

New services are added to user space

When kernel have to be modified, changes are fewer (small kernel).

Easier to port the operating system to new architectures

More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)

More secure
 Detriments:

Performance overhead of user space to kernel space communication
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Mac OS X Structure
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Modules
 Most modern operating systems implement kernel modules

Uses object-oriented approach

Each core component is separate

Dynamically links in additional services either during boot time
or run time (dynamically loadable modules)

Each talks to the others over known interfaces

Each is loadable as needed within the kernel

E.g. support for different file systems can be added as
loadable modules.
 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
 Similar to microkernel in that primary module has only core
functions, but more efficient because modules do not need to
invoke message passing for communication.
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Solaris Modular Approach
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Virtual Machines
 A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical
conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system
kernel as though they were all hardware
 A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the
underlying bare hardware
 The operating system creates the illusion of multiple
processes, each executing on its own processor with its own
(virtual) memory
 Difficulty in disk systems (e.g 3 disk drives versus 7 virtual
machines)

Minidisks
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Virtual Machines (Cont.)
 The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the
virtual machines

CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have
their own processor

Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card readers and
virtual line printers

A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual
machine operator’s console
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Virtual Machines (Cont.)
Non-virtual Machine
Virtual Machine
(a) Nonvirtual machine (b) virtual machine
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Virtual Macines (Cont.)
 Virtual machine software can run in kernel mode (host OS)
 Virtual machine itself can execute in only user mode with virtual
user mode and virtual kernel mode
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Virtual Machines (Cont.)
 The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of system
resources since each virtual machine is isolated from all other virtual
machines. This isolation, however, permits no direct sharing of
resources.

It is possible to share a minidisk and thus to share files
 It is possible to define a network of virtual machines, each of
which sends info over the virtual communications network
 A virtual-machine system is a perfect vehicle for operating-systems
research and development. System development is done on the
virtual machine, instead of on a physical machine and so does not
disrupt normal system operation.
 The virtual machine concept is difficult to implement due to the effort
required to provide an exact duplicate to the underlying machine
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VMware Architecture
Concurrent usage is possible.
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The Java Virtual Machine
The JVM performs garbage collection.
JIT compiler can be used for efficiency.
Special JVM chips are available.
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Operating System Generation
 Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of
machines; the system must be configured for each specific
computer site
 SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific
configuration of the hardware system or probes hardware directly
to determine the components

After information is determined, source code of OS may be
modified by the system administrator

Or tables may be created and modules are selected from a
precompiled library
 Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel
 Bootstrap program – code stored in ROM that is able to locate the
kernel, load it into memory, and start its execution
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System Boot
 Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware can
start it

Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, locates the kernel, loads it into
memory, and starts it

Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location loads
bootstrap loader

When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory
location


Firmware used to hold initial boot code
Bootstrap program runs diagnostics to determine state of machine and
initializes all aspects of the system
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End of Chapter 2