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Chapter 2
Textbook
Cells and Tissues
Chapter-Opening Question
Students may discuss, for example, scientific breakthroughs involving cloning and the use of stem cells to treat
a variety of diseases.
Lesson 2.1 Molecules of Life
Before You Read
What are the major types of large organic molecules in the
human body?
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
What molecule is the universal source of energy for cellular
reactions?
ATP
What properties of water make it essential for life?
Its ability to form hydrogen bonds, high heat capacity,
relatively high boiling point, and excellent solvent properties
Check Your Understanding, page 39
1. simple carbohydrates; “carbo” for carbon and
“hydrate” for water
2. complex carbohydrates
3. the liver and muscle cells
Check Your Understanding, page 42
1. an amino group (-NH2), a central carbon, and an acid
group (-COOH)
2. to act as structural elements, enzymes, and carriers
3. A peptide bond links the amino group of an amino
acid to the acid group of another; a polypeptide is a
long chain of amino acids.
4. a molecule that participates in a chemical reaction
without being consumed or destroyed in the reaction
Check Your Understanding, page 45
1.
2.
3.
4.
fatty acids, glycerides, phospholipids, and steroids
saturated and unsaturated
It bonds easily with water.
cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen
Check Your Understanding, page 48
1. a phosphate group, a sugar group, and a nitrogenous
base
2. 23 from each
3. the DNA sequence of a human
4. messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA),
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and regulatory RNA
5. adenosine triphosphate; an adenine base, a sugar,
and three phosphate groups
Caption Questions
Figure 2.2: disconnect all the hexagons from one another
Figure 2.3: both
Figure 2.5: The folding process that creates these different
structures allows the protein to reduce its potential energy.
Thus, each fold reduces the potential energy of the protein.
Know and Understand
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
hydrogen, carbon
energy or fuel
protein
peptide bond
It speeds the reaction time, and it is not consumed.
lipids
cell membranes
Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, cytosine, and
guanine. DNA also contains thymine, whereas RNA
also contains uracil.
9. its polarity
10. The last phosphate in a bond is split off, thereby
releasing ADP and inorganic phosphate. ATP can
then be resynthesized by combining ADP and the
inorganic phosphate.
11. the acidity or alkalinity of a solution
Analyze and Apply
12. No; water is a biologically important substance
because of its high heat capacity, its relatively high
boiling point, and its excellent solvent properties.
13. Yes; every cell in our bodies contains DNA. DNA
provides the blueprints for making proteins, which are
necessary for creating multicellular life.
In the Lab
14. Models will vary.
Lesson 2.2 Cells
Before You Read
How do cells control what goes in and what comes out?
The plasma membrane keeps the inside of a cell
in, and the outside of a cell out. Also, the cell membrane
contains selective channel proteins that allow water and
small, charged particles to pass into and out of the cell.
How do cells move and change their shape?
The cytoskeleton rearranges itself when necessary.
How do cells obtain and use energy to accomplish tasks?
Cell mitochondria are responsible for making ATP,
the universal carrier of energy within cells. Once energy
has been made, it leaves the mitochondria and enters the
cytoplasm, where it can be used as an energy source for
many different processes.
Check Your Understanding, page 53
1. in the plasma membrane, with the carbohydrate
group projecting into the extracellular fluid
2. It helps identify our own cells as friends, not foes.
3. Active transport requires energy because it involves
making a substance go where it “doesn’t want to go.”
Passive transport doesn’t require the expenditure of
any extra energy.
1
Check Your Understanding, page 58
1. defining the shape of the cell and giving it mechanical
strength
2. to make ATP
3. compartments in the Golgi apparatus in which
reactions involving potentially dangerous enzymes
and reactants can be conducted in isolation from the
rest of the cytoplasm
4. Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm; others
are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Check Your Understanding, page 62
1. Transcription is the process by which DNA produces
RNA. The RNA polymerase binds to the DNA strand,
which unzips; the RNA is then made as a match to
the ends of the half of the DNA strand. Once the
transcription process is complete, the DNA strand
reunites.
2. There are two major phases in the life cycle of a
cell: interphase and the mitotic phase. Interphase is
marked by the resting periods that occur between
successive cell divisions. The mitotic phase consists
of mitosis (marked by prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase) and cytokinesis.
Caption Questions
Figure 2.14: extracellular fluid
Figure 2.15: Structural proteins connect the cell to neighboring cells, the extracellular matrix, and the cytoskeleton,
which forms a link between the inside and outside of the cell.
Figure 2.16: Motor proteins are the “automobiles,” and
microtubules are the “highway.”
Figure 2.17: The mitochondrion is responsible for making
ATP.
Figure 2.18: Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it;
smooth ER does not.
Figure 2.20: telophase
Figure 2.21: 46
Taking It Further, page 54
1. Students may choose to research, for example,
active and passive transport, maintenance of body
temperature, pH balance, or other integrative processes
that help the body achieve and maintain homeostasis.
Know and Understand
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
extracellular fluid
the layer of carbohydrate groups surrounding a cell
the cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus
nucleus
through a nuclear pore
Analyze and Apply
7. Membranes allow the passage of certain substances
into and out of cells. If those membranes were
replaced by walls, certain substances could not get
into or out of the cells.
8. A resting cell has less sodium inside than outside,
and it takes energy to move the sodium out. When
a cell has more potassium inside than out, it needs
energy to bring potassium in. The sodium-potassium
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
pump in the cell’s membrane breaks down ATP and
uses this energy to pump sodium out and potassium
in.
In the Lab
9. Models will vary, but all structures listed must be
included.
Lesson 2.3 Tissues
Before You Read
What are the major tissue types in the body?
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Connective tissue gives the body and organs strength
to resist external forces, protects internal organs, maintains
the proper shape of organs, and provides a rigid framework
on which muscle can pull to create movement.
What does muscle tissue do that other tissue does not do?
generate force on command
Check Your Understanding, page 67
1. covering the body and lining various body cavities
2. the apical (outside) surface and the basal (inside)
surface
3. Epithelial tissues protect the body from physical
damage, control what substances enter and leave
the body, provide sensory information, and secrete
various substances.
4. An exocrine gland secretes its product to the outside,
or surface, of the body. An endocrine gland secretes
its product to the interstitial space within the body.
Check Your Understanding, page 71
1. Connective tissues give the body strength to resist
external forces, protect internal organs, maintain
proper shape of organs, and provide a rigid
framework on which muscle can pull, so that the body
can move.
2. connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood
3. Loose connective tissue has cells and an
extracellular matrix that includes fibers running
through it. Dense connective tissue has relatively few
cells and an extracellular matrix that is mainly fibers
and little else.
4. to secrete the extracellular matrix of cartilage
Check Your Understanding, page 73
1.
2.
3.
4.
force
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
electrical
supporting (or glial) cells and neurons
Caption Questions
Figure 2.22: The surface of the skin is epithelial tissue, which
forms a barrier separating the inside of the body from the
external environment. Most forms of epithelia separate inside
from outside, in the sense that “outside” means a place connected to the external world, without any intervening tissues.
Know and Understand
1. exocrine glands (which excrete chemicals to the
outside, or surface, of the body) and endocrine
glands (which excrete chemicals within the body)
Chapter 2 Answer Key
2
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
roughly spherical
They give tensile strength.
hyaline
osseous
actin and myosin
Analyze and Apply
7. Skeletal and cardiac muscle are both striated, but
cardiac muscle cells are much shorter.
8. Some chemicals would not be secreted in our bodies,
there would be no structure to facilitate connections
from the inside to the outside world, and our body
cavities would lack necessary linings.
9. The cells from the stomach lining would be
identifiable by their smooth muscle; the cells from
the wall of the heart, by their short, striated muscle;
and the cells from the leg muscle, by their long, thin,
striated characteristics.
12. Examples of chemical reactions that provide the body
with energy: Glucose, which is used for energy, is
obtained when cells break glucose molecules off of
glycogen. Carbohydrates are used as fuel to make
ATP, the most important source of energy in the
body. Protein folding releases the potential energy
within a protein. Triglycerides can be broken down to
yield fatty acids, a source of energy. Potential energy
is stored between the phosphates in a molecule
of ATP and can be released by splitting off those
phosphates. Hydrogen bonding gives water the ability
to absorb or release a great deal of energy.
13. As a result of DNA damage in a person’s cells, certain
information in the DNA would not be transcribed, or
it could be transcribed to the wrong destination. DNA
damage could cause a chromosomal disorder. Because
DNA provides the blueprint for making proteins,
damage to the DNA could disrupt protein creation.
In the Lab
Lesson 2.2 Cells
10. Models will vary. Before creating their models,
students will need to do Internet and/or library
research on the effects of aging on body tissues.
Good places to start are the websites of the National
Institutes of Health (NIH) and Science Daily.
14.
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Chapter Assessments
Lesson 2.1 Molecules of Life
1.
2.
3.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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11.
sugar
carbon, hydrates
polymer
energy
glycerides, phospholipids
C
Monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides.
Glycerides are classified depending on how many
fatty acids are attached to them—one, two, or three.
B
As amino acids, glycine and tryptophan both have an
identical “backbone” consisting of an amino group
(NH2), an acid group (COOH), and a central carbon
in between. Both serve as building blocks of proteins.
Glycine has the simplest residual group, whereas
tryptophan has the largest.
The amino acid sequence is the primary structure
of a protein; the primary structure determines how
the protein will fold for maximum efficiency. The first
level of folding, the secondary structure, gives the
protein its general shape, such as a spiral or pleats.
At the next level—the tertiary structure—helical,
pleated, and other sections fold together. In proteins
containing multiple polypeptide chains, a quaternary
structure arranges the various subunits together,
determining the protein’s final shape.
Without saliva, chewing and digestion would be more
difficult because carbohydrate molecules in our food
would not be broken up. Without myoglobin and
hemoglobin, our muscles would be weaker and less
oxygenated, and our blood would not be sufficiently
oxygenated.
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
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34.
protein channels
carbohydrate
centrioles
mitochondria
glycolysis
C
A
C
B
D
Rough ER is where most proteins are produced
and modified. Smooth ER is where replacement
membrane is made, where steroid hormones are
produced, and where triglycerides are formed.
B
F
A
H
E
C
G
D
They are either finger-like or hair-like projections on a
cell, and each serves a different purpose. Microvilli are
finger-like extensions that increase the surface area of
a cell. Cilia are longer than microvilli and flex back and
forth to move fluid and mucus across the outside of the
cell.
For this activity, students will perform Internet and/or
library research to supplement the material covered
in this chapter. Encourage students to prepare a brief
(10-minute) PowerPoint ® presentation. They may
work in pairs or small groups.
Lesson 2.3 Tissues
35.
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histology
D
epithelia
lumen
C
compound
True
Chapter 2 Answer Key
3
42.
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46.
47.
48.
49.
reticular
False
epithelia
simple squamous epithelia
C
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
D
Simple epithelia have a single layer of cells, whereas
stratified epithelia have multiple layers.
50. Certain types of connective tissue contain both
collagen and elastic tissue, which provide support
as well as flexibility. Connective tissue also helps
to minimize friction, which is the main purpose of
cartilage. Epithelial tissue, by contrast, covers the
body and lines cavities inside the body. Its layered
cells are better suited to controlling substances
that enter and leave the body, providing sensory
information, and absorbing and secreting substances.
51. Cancer is caused by damage to a cell’s DNA
molecules; the effect is uncontrolled division and
growth of abnormal cells. Cancerous mutations
cause harm to cells and, therefore, disrupt their
normal functions—in particular, the mechanism that
governs cell division and growth. Tissues and organs
are made up of cells; therefore, if cells become
cancerous, the tissues and organs that they comprise
will become affected as well.
Building Skills and Connecting
Concepts
Analyzing and Evaluating Data
52. .70%
53. 83%
54. 2.8%
Communicating about Anatomy and
Physiology
55. Word lists will vary.
Lab Investigations
56. Models will vary.
Workbook
Lesson 2.1: Learning the Key Terms
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A
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L
C
J
S
Q
B
R
G
F
D
N
H
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
15.
16.
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M
O
I
K
P
Lesson 2.1: Study Questions
1. The detailed study of the molecules of life, how
they are made, how they interact, and how they are
broken down.
2. Organic molecules usually contain oxygen, and they
sometimes contain nitrogen, phosphorous, or sulfur.
3. All carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates serve as a source
of chemical energy, or fuel.
4. Answers may vary. Mer means “unit.” In polymer,
it means “many.” Other “-mers” include monomers
(mono means “one”), dimers (two subunits), trimers
(three subunits), and tetramers (four subunits).
5. 20
6. The central carbon has a variable group of atoms
called the residual group attached to it.
7. the amino acid sequence
8. Enzymes speed up, or catalyze specific biological
reactions.
9. Saturated fatty acids have single bonds, while
unsaturated fatty acids are those with one or more
double bonds.
10. fatty acids
11. Hydrophilic phospholipids easily bond with water
molecules. Hydrophobic phospholipids do not bond
well with water.
12. steroids
13. ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)
14. Different bases distinguish different nucleotides.
15. adenosine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil; DNA
has A, G, C, and T. RNA has A, G, C, and U.
16. the sperm and the egg
17. adenosine triphosphate; it is composed of an adenine
base, a sugar, and three phosphate groups.
18. Hydrogen bonds are electrical interactions between
the positive region around the hydrogen atom of a
water molecule and the negatively charged region of
another molecule.
19. An acid is a substance that, when added to water,
increases its hydrogen ion concentration. A base
is a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion
concentration of a solution and increases its alkalinity.
Lesson 2.1: Working with Water
Molecules
(+)
H
(+)
O
H
(–)
A. Water molecules
have polarity
Chapter 2 Answer Key
4
(–)
(+)
(+)
(–)
(+)
(–)
B. Water molecule forming
hydrogen bonds
Lesson 2.2: Learning the Key Terms
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2.
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Extracellular matrix
mitochondria
Cytoplasm
glycoprotein
RNA polymerase
centrioles
plasma membrane
mitosis
endoplasmic reticulum
channel proteins
ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Microvilli
cytoskeleton
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
codon
cilia
nucleus
extracellular fluid
Lesson 2.2: Study Questions
1. The polarity, or charge, of water and these particles
prevents them from penetrating a lipid bilayer without
channel proteins.
2. The glycocalyx is the layer of carbohydrate groups
surrounding a cell. It helps cells bind to extracellular
substances, an important function for cell recognition.
3. Passive transport does not require the use of any extra
energy, while active transport requires energy because
it makes a substance go where it doesn’t want to go.
4. Biofeedback and neurofeedback are learned through
training and involve the control of variables such as
heart rate, blood pressure, or even body temperature.
5. microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules
6. Because they are responsible for making ATP, the
universal carrier of energy within cells.
7. adipocytes: fat cells; hepatocytes: liver cells
8. Answers may vary. plasma membrane, the nuclear
envelope, mitochondria, ER, Golgi
9. in its nucleus
10. transcription (DNA produces RNA) and translation
(RNA produces protein)
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
11. nuclear pore
12. A cell divides to make new cells during interphase or
the mitotic phase of its life.
13. During interphase, the cell performs its usual
functions and prepares for cell division. It is during
the mitotic phase that the cell actually divides.
14. Answers may vary. G stands for gap and S for
synthetic. G1 is the first stage and includes the cell’s
initial maintenance and growth. The S phase is
second and includes synthesis, or duplication of the
cell’s DNA, cell maintenance, and cell growth. The
final stage, G2, involves further cell maintenance and
growth, but also final preparations for division.
15. Cells in G0 never divide.
16. the division of the cytoplasm
17. prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
18. prophase: chromatin (DNA plus associated proteins)
condenses to form chromosomes; metaphase: some
spindle fibers lock on to the centromeres of the
chromosomes; anaphase: the enzyme separase cuts
each centromere in half and sister chromatids move
apart; telophase: the chromosomes gather around
each centriole and decondense, or spread out,
new nuclear membrane forms around the DNA and
mitosis is complete.
19. The uncontrolled division and growth of abnormal
cells.
Lesson 2.2: A Typical Cell
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E
G
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F
B
J
D
A
L
C
K
H
Lesson 2.2: Labeling the Cytoplasm
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G
E
J
B
K
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C
L
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A
I
D
Lesson 2.2: The Stages of Mitosis
1.
2.
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4.
D
I
H
J
Chapter 2 Answer Key
5
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E
A
F
C
G
K
B
Lesson 2.3: Learning the Key Terms
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M
P
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N
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G
A
K
S
B
Q
J
Lesson 2.3: Study Questions
1. protect the body from physical damage; control
substances entering and leaving the body; provide
sensory information; and secrete various substances
2. simple epithelia, stratified epithelia, squamous
epithelia, cubodial epithelia, and columnar epithelia
3. the skin
4. both face deep inside the body’s cells
5. An exocrine gland secretes its product to the outside
world. An endocrine gland secretes its product into
the interstitial space.
6. Glandular organs are large, complex glands, with blood
vessels and connective tissue instead of only cells.
7. connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood
8. Collagen fibers are strong and resistant to stretch.
They give tensile strength to tissue. Reticular fibers
help to provide a structural framework that keeps
cells in place. Elastic fibers give springiness, or
elasticity, to tissues.
9. Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and
carries away wastes and carbon dioxide. It also
provides transportation, regulation, and protection.
10. Cartilage provides support and flexibility, while bone
provides a stronger framework that protects organs
and supports the body.
11. The fibers are not all parallel and run in all directions.
As a result, irregular dense connective tissue is good at
resisting stretching forces from a variety of directions.
12. the study of cells
13. Answers may vary. Hyaline cartilage forms the ends
of the ribs where they connect to the sternum, or
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
14.
15.
16.
17.
breastbone. It is also found in the nose, trachea
(windpipe), and larynx (voicebox). Elastic cartilage
is found in the external ear and the epiglottis.
Fibrocartilage is found in the discs between vertebrae
and in the discs in the knee joint.
skeletal
Both skeletal and cardiac muscle is striated, which
means it has striations, or stripes.
smooth muscle
glial cells and neurons; Glial cells are supporting
cells and neurons carry electrical signals to muscles,
glands, or other neurons, and also receive same
input from other neurons.
Lesson 2.3: Complete the Chart
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connective tissue proper
cartilage
bone (osseous) tissue
blood
regular
fibro
adipo
lympho
chondro
chondro
osteo
osteo
erythrocytes
leukocytes
matrix
fibers
collagen
elastic
collagen
Chapter 2: Spelling Challenge
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genome
molecule
carbohydrate
saccharide
hydrogen
polymer
glycerides
glucose
proteins
polypeptide
phospholipids
nucleotides
chromosomes
plasma
cilia
mitosis
membrane
equilibrium
cytokinesis
epithelial
cartilage
endocrine
cellular
collagen
Chapter 2 Answer Key
6
Chapter 2 Lab Investigation:
Diffusion and Osmosis
Osmosis
A. the potato slice placed in the solution with the lower
osmotic pressure
B. the potato slice placed in the solution with the higher
osmotic pressure
C. the potato slice not placed in a solution
Diffusion
A. Answers may vary; this should be the fastest of the
three times
B. Answers may vary; this should be the intermediate
time
C. Answers may vary; this should be the slowest time
Conclusions
1. hot
2. cold
3. There is a direct relationship between temperature
and rate of diffusion. The higher the temperature, the
faster the rate of diffusion.
4. Molecules are more active at a higher temperature,
and less active at a lower temperature.
5. Water entering the cells of the potato caused the
potato slice to become rigid. Water leaving the cells
caused the potato to become limp.
6. out of
7. into
Chapter 2 Practice Test
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nucleic acids
neurons
cytokinesis
chondroblasts
Golgi apparatus
F
F
T
F
T
D
D
A
C
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
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A
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J
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B
H
A
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J
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F
A
C
B
D
Answers may vary. Understanding how cells
work, and how they work together, is important
for understanding anatomy and physiology.
Understanding cells and the tissues made from them
is also necessary for understanding diseases and
their treatment. This is especially so now because
modern medicine so greatly depends on therapies
targeted at cellular processes.
37. Answers may vary. prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase
Prophase: chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes.
Metaphase: some spindle fibers lock on to the
centromeres of the chromosomes and pull the
chromosomes until they are all positioned along
the midline of the cell.
Anaphase: the enzyme separase cuts each
centromere in half and each chromatid pulls itself
along the spindle fiber toward the centriole;
46 chromatids go to one side and 46 chromatids
move to the opposite side.
Telophase: the chromosomes gather around each
centriole, where they decondense, or spread out;
new nuclear membrane forms around the DNA.
Chapter 2 Answer Key
7