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For next several days, Edward’s book and the War held my almost undivided attention. The
short conflict, previously unknown to me, had been the direct result of a non-aggression agreement
between two former arch enemies. On August 23, 1939 in Moscow, the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact was
consummated between Adolf Hitler’s fascist Nazi Germany and Joseph Stalin’s communist Soviet Union.
Nine days later the Second World War would begin. On September 1, the German blitzkrieg violently
stormed into western Poland and on September 17, the Soviets followed Germany’s lead by invading
and brutalizing eastern Poland. But this was only the beginning. Contained within the agreement was a
secret protocol assigning spheres of influence to each nation. Besides Eastern Poland, the Soviet Union
had been assigned Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Finland.
Based on what had just happened in Poland, the free nations of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia
quickly caved to Soviet demands and were subsequently occupied and later absorbed into the Soviet
Union. However, when the Finnish government was approached with demands they felt unreasonable,
they refused. As a result, on November 30, a seemingly defenseless Finland was attacked by the Soviet
behemoth considered at the time to be the greatest military machine the world had ever known. While
the sympathetic free world quickly wrote their eulogies for the young nation, what unexpectedly
unfolded was a story every bit as astonishing as the legendary last stand of the 300 Spartans at the
Battle of Thermopylae and the decimation of three Roman legions by German tribes during the Battle of
Teutoburg Forest. As I continued reading, for the first time in my life, I felt pride in the knowledge that
Finnish blood coursed through my veins.
Several years would pass before I fully understood the events preceding what was anything but
a new conflict with who the Finns had long termed, “the traditional enemy.” Additionally, as the world
was pulled down into the dark abyss of a larger war, the events in Finland that followed the Winter War
were still a mystery to me. Yet, the cause and effect was only academic and would only later gain
significance after Evan’s project had ended and my project took on a life of its own. But what had moved
me so deeply at the time was the Finnish fighting spirit which almost seemed superhuman. I would
eventually learn a word to describe it, “sisu”. However, sisu was not born during the Winter War but as
matter of necessity over many centuries, if not millennia. To understand why the Finns were willing to
give up everything including their lives and existence as a nation at this moment in time, it’s important
to first understand the long mostly silent often tragic epic of the Fennic tribes. At the time of Evan’s
project, this epic was composed of an incomplete set of bullet points on an historical outline found
online. But as my knowledge grew in the coming years, I learned of terrible hardships and subjugation
that together would create a tough and resilient race of people who would endure and miraculously
survive as world empires rose and fell until their chance for freedom finally arrived.
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Before the first mention of great empires, the Finns existed. While often confused with
Scandinavians, they were unrelated to this race of people who would one day ravage the world they
came in contact with as Vikings and then later assimilate into and significantly change the world we live
in today. While Fennic lands are sometimes geographically lumped together with Scandinavia and
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termed Fennoscandia, for my story, Fennoscandia will stand apart from the lands where the Viking
kingdoms of Sweden, Norway and Denmark arose known as Scandinavia. In the west, Fennoscandia’s
borders extended to the Baltic shores of the Gulf of Bothnia and the northern land bridge connecting it
to Scandinavia. To the north, it was bounded by the Arctic Ocean and to the east, it extended to the
White Sea including what is now Russia’s northwestern plain, known today as the Murmansk Oblast and
the Republic of Karelia. Finally, to the south, Fennoscandia extends to the northern Baltic shores of the
Gulf of Finland, the isthmus north of the River Neva between the gulf and Lake Ladoga then along
southern shores of Ladoga east to Lake Onega and then on to the White Sea.
The first evidence of human existence in the area dated back to at least 40 millennia based on
findings in a cave near Kristiinankaupunki (Kristinestad) in the central western area of Fennoscandia
known as Ostrobothnia. However, during the last major Ice Age, the area became uninhabitable and was
covered by a thick sheet of ice which did not begin receding until 22,000 B.C. Subsequently over next
14,000 years, global warming shrank the ice cap and in process created Finland’s current landscape
covered by approximately 188,000 lakes. Over the next 3,000 years, a large body of water, called Lake
Ancylus, formed to the east and south from the melting glaciers of Scandinavia and the Central
European Highlands. Around the lake was a massive marshland which extended from the Atlantic to the
Ural Mountains. Eventually, the ocean level rose covering the western marshes, thereby creating the
North Sea. In time, salt water from the North Sea leaked back into Lake Ancylus through passages
known as the Sound located between the Danish Islands and southern most area of Sweden, known as
Skåne. The result would be the formation of the relatively lightly salted Baltic Sea.
The next traces of human activity in Northern Europe were dated around 8,500 B.C. when
evidence of hunter-gatherer communities were found in southern Fennoscandia, Skåne, northern
Norway and the southern Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Since most of Fennoscandia
was submerged at the time, it is suspected that the first immigrants came from the south and southeast.
Due to language similarities, it is possible that these immigrants originated from the ancestors of the
Hungarians, known as the Magyars, who inhabited areas southwest of the Carpathian Mountains of
central Europe. Later, additional waves of immigrants arrived around 2,000-2,500 B.C. from south and
more commonly from the west in what is now the central part of modern day Sweden.
The ability to communicate is a basic need for creating a culture and commonality between
people. However, a unique language that is not commonly spoken outside a particular people is
evidence of ancestry. Besides Finland, large areas of Northwestern Russia and the Baltic countries have
inhabitants which are descendents of various Fennic tribes and still speak variants of a unique group of
languages known as Uralic, and as such they would eventually be termed Finno-Ugrians. Suomi is still
the most common Uralic language spoken in Finland. Furthermore, since the original inhabitants were
believed to be the nomadic Saami people who also spoke a Uralic dialect, it is probable that the
language has been spoken in Fennoscandia for 1,500 to 10,000 years (A History of Finland). Today, the
most common Uralic languages are Finnish, Estonia and Hungarian. Yet sadly, there were many other
Uralic dialects that are now either extinct or near extinction due in large part to Soviet era persecutions,
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mass deportations and genocides. (Need sources: original source for this statement was Jessica Smith
post 03/04/2015 and map posted with a list of Finno-Ugrian languages in Eurasia today)
While the ancient Fennic tribes may have left evidence of their pre-historic existence, it was not
until 500 B.C. that the inhabitants of Fennoscandia were first mentioned. During a Greek expedition to
explore the Baltic Sea, Greek explorer Pytheas referred to them as the Phinnoi (A History of Finland).
However, another six hundred years would pass before the Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus first
described the peaceful hunter-gatherers known as the Fenni in his work entitled Germania (A History of
Finland). In 98 A.D., based on his observations, Tacitus described them as follows:
“In wild savageness live the nation of the Fennians, and in beastly poverty, destitute of arms, of
horses, and of homes; their food common herbs; their apparel, skins; their bed the earth; their only
hope in their arrows, which for want of iron they point with bones. Their common support they have
from the chase, women as well as men; for with these the former wander up and down, and crave a
portion of the prey. Nor other shelter have they even for their babes, against the violence of tempests
and ravening beasts, then to cover them with the branches of trees twisted together; this a reception of
the old men, and hither resort the young. Such a condition they judge happier than the painful
occupation of cultivating ground, than the labour of rearing houses, than the agitations of hope and fear
attending the defense of their own property or the seizing that of others. Secure against the designs of
men, secure against the malignity of the Gods, they have accomplished a thing of infinite difficulty; that
to them nothing remains even to be wished.”
When Tacitus wrote these words, he probably could not have imagined a world without the
Roman Empire, but his was one of the first empires to fall in this epic story. Considered the greatest
empire in history, its collapse and rebirths would send shock waves into the Twentieth Century and
directly affect the fate on the Fennians as well as the entire world.
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The city of Rome was founded around 753 B.C. and became a republic in 509 B.C. However,
Rome did not become an empire until the Roman Senate granted the adopted son of murdered dictator
Julius Caesar supreme power over Roman dominions thereby making him the first Roman Emperor in 27
B.C. His name was Octavius and thereafter, he would forever be known as Augustus Caesar.
In 293 A.D., Emperor Diocletian divided the massive Rome Empire into eastern and western
halves and appointed for each a supreme Augustus (Emperor) and subordinate Caesar (King). Thirteen
year later on July 25, 306, the Western Emperor Constantius died in Eboracum in Britannia Secunda
(modern day York, England) after an illness contracted north of Hadrian’s Wall while battling the ancient
Scots, known then as the Picts. However, before he died, Constantius elevated his son Constantine, who
was there with him in Eboracum, to the rank of Augustus of the West. However, the Eastern Augustus
Galerius refused to confirm Constantine’s appointment and instead granted him the title of Caesar of
the West giving him control of the Roman armies of Britannia, Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula.
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Constantine would later regain his title but not before bloodshed following an event that, if true,
could only be described as miraculous. On October 28, 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius, who also
claimed the title of Augustus of the West, at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge north of Rome. Shortly
before the battle, Constantine claimed to have seen a cross in the sky arising from the light of the sun.
In the few years preceding the battle, Constantine had become disillusioned with his pagan
gods, turned toward monotheism and was currently worshipping only one god, Helios or Sol Invictus, the
Unconquered Sun. On his march to Rome, he continued his soul searching and prayed constantly for
divine intervention. That intervention came as a message emblazoned into the cross in the sky for him
and his whole army to see which read, “In Hoc Signo Vinces “, which translated “with this sign, you will
conquer.”
The sign was formed by the combination of the Greek Letters Chi (X) overlying a Rho (P) and
with this sign painted on their shields, Constantine’s forces quickly overwhelmed and slaughtered a
force twice their size. Those not slain by Constantine’s soldiers, retreated in disorder across a pontoon
bridge built by Maxentius’ engineers alongside the narrow old stone bridge. However, the engineers
pulled the bolts holding the bridge in place too early and hundreds drowned in Tiber’s fast flowing
current. Panicked, the remnants of his army fled toward the narrow stone bridge and were crushed or
stampeded by the mass bodies pushing across or were thrown into the river by their own comrades.
When Maxentius’ body was found, it was decapitated and his head was placed on a lance which was
carried triumphantly in front of Constantine as he entered Rome the next day. That same day the senate
proclaimed him the “the greatest Augustus”, but history would remember him as Constantine the Great.
(Byzantium: The Early Centuries)
The following year, the Edict of Milan was agreed upon by both Constantine and Licinius, the
Eastern Emperor. The edict granted full tolerance to Christianity and all other religions within the Roman
Empire. Before this document, Christianity was illegal throughout the Empire and many early Christians,
when given the choice to worship pagan gods or die a martyr’s death in the coliseums, chose death over
denying their deeply held beliefs. While, it is believed that Constantine became a Christian around the
time of the edict, he had long been tolerant of Christians because his mother, Helena, had been a
Christian since he was very young. Furthermore, she had made several pilgrimages to Palestine to collect
holy relics, including what was believed to be the cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified. These sacred
treasures would eventually be amassed for the protection of the city her son would soon found.
In 320, Licinius reneged on the agreement and renewed his persecution of Christians believing
them to be more loyal to Constantine than himself. His actions led to another civil war. The war itself
was short and ended on September 18, 324, with the surrender of Licinius after the Battle of Chrysopolis
in modern day Turkey near an ancient Greek colony and trading city called Byzantium. While first
promising leniency to the vanquished, Constantine instead had both Licinius and his son, who was his
nephew from a half-sister, hung the following year. Additionally, on the request of his mother Helena for
unknown reasons, he had both his wife Faustina and eldest son Crispus gruesomely put to death. With
all his potential rivals removed, Constantine became the sole emperor of a reunited Roman Empire.
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With Licinius gone and his rival Greek speaking pagan empire defeated, the once outlawed had
now become the state sanctioned religion of the entire Roman Empire. Believing in orthodoxy over
religious debate as well as his role in enlightening the world “to a proper observance of God’s holy
laws”, Constantine called the first Council of Nicaea in 325 to create a uniform Christian doctrine. During
this historic meeting, 250-318 church leaders from throughout the Empire convened to establish a
consensus concerning the definition of the true nature of God the Father and God the Son. They also
begin the process of determining what gospels would be considered canonical in the New Testament
and what Christian writings, interpretations and opinions would be considered heresy. Not all those
present agreed with the proceedings and in one legendary altercation, the man who would be
remembered as jolly old St Nicholas struck a dissenter named Arius in the face. (Byzantium: The Early
Centuries)
Shortly before this first Council of Nicaea, Constantine I also proposed creating a new Eastern
capitol that would integrate the eastern half of the empire with the now Christian and Latin speaking
Rome. While various choices were considered, ancient Byzantium was selected due to its established
Roman infrastructure and, more importantly, its strategic location. Located on a triangular shaped
peninsula at the very edge of Europe and Asia, Byzantium was positioned southwest of a deep and
narrow five-mile-long inlet known as the Golden Horn which formed a natural and easily defended
harbor. Further to the northeast the Bosporus Straight served as a gateway into the Black Sea and to the
south, the Propontis (Sea of Mamara) funneled into the narrow Hellespont (the Dardanelles) which
served as a gateway to Aegean Sea to the southeast. This left only the northwestern landside requiring
significant walled fortifications. While the new city was founded in 324, it would not be officially
dedicated until May 11, 330 when it was renamed Constantinople, the City of Constantine. It would be
the capitol of the Eastern Roman Empire for over 1000 years and only after its fall would it be
remembered as the Byzantine Empire or simply, the Byzantium. (Ivan the Terrible;
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great; Byzantium: The Early Centuries)
While Constantine the Great’s new Eastern capital would rise, the Western Roman Empire
would slowly crumble and fall in large great part due to the Hun Invasion. Originating from nomadic
tribes from Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia, the Huns were also first described by Tacitus.
As they moved westward, the Huns would cause a great western migration of the many tribes in their
war path. Later, under the leadership of Attila, the mounted archers of the short lived Hun Empire
would become one of the most feared enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. As a
result of the forced migration of Germanic tribes, the ancient capital would be sacked in 410 by nomads
known as the Visigoths. Thereafter, the Visigoths would continue west and eventually settled in the
Iberian Peninsula where modern day Spain would arise. In 455, Rome would again be sacked by another
Germanic tribe known as the Vandals. Before being displaced by the Huns, the Vandals were believed to
have originally migrated to Germania from southern Scandinavia. From the senseless destruction they
inflicted on Rome, the term vandalism is still used today. Finally, on September 4, 476, the final
Augustus of the West, 15-year-old Romulus, was deposed by Germanic tribesmen and replaced by their
leader Flavius Odoacer who proclaimed himself, King of Italy. Ironically, these same tribes that
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conquered Rome would later revive the Western Empire. On December 25, 800 in the Old St Peter’s
Basilica in Rome, Charles I, otherwise known to history as Charlemagne the Great, was crowned
Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III. Before the coronation, Charlemagne was already king of the
Franks, Lombards and Italy. Once crowned emperor, he would expand his Catholic empire into what
would eventually be termed the Holy Roman Empire. Like the Byzantium, Charlemagne’s empire would
also last for over 1000 years. During that time, modern France and Germany would develop and after its
demise at the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Holy Roman Empire would be known by another name,
the First Reich.
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With the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Fenni would be all but forgotten until
near the end of the Viking Age. However even before the Viking Age began, the Fennic tribes were
expanding within and outside Fennoscandia’s borders. Expanding within were the four western most
Fennic tribes known as the Kainulaiset, the Suomi (also known as Finns proper or Turci), the Hämäläiset
(also known as Tavastians, Yam, Yem or Emi), and Karelians (also known as Korel or Biarmians). The first
three tribes settled and expanded within Fennoscandia with the Kainulaiset settling around the Gulf of
Bothnia; the Suomi around the southwestern coast and the port of Turku, in the Åland Islands and
northeastwardly to the edge of the great inland forest; and the Hämäläiset around the central lakes and
the southern coast for summer hunting trips. The fourth tribe, the Karelians, originally settled along the
northern end of the Gulf of Bothnia and expanded eastward along a wide strip of land from Lake Ladoga
(Europe’s largest lake) to the White Sea and eventual left Fennoscandia altogether. In the east, the
Karelians were just one of many Fennic tribes who had continued expanding eastward and
southeastward to the Ural Mountains, even eventually extending into Western Siberia (A History of
Russia Vol 1). By 1000, the Karelians had developed into a separate culture as had the numerous Eastern
and Southern Fennic tribes who inhabited the lands which would one day be called Russia, Estonia and
Latvia. In all, the Fennic tribal family occupied a homeland 500 miles deep and 1000 miles wide from the
Gulf of Bothnia to the Ural Mountains (A History of Finland, A History of Russia Vol 1, The Northern
Crusades).
Sometime between Tacitus’ description of the Fenni and the Viking Age, the Fenni developed a
loose social structure composed of basic units of extended families. The Suomi and Hämäläiset
developed settlements consisting of log-huts and smaller buildings surrounded by a stockade where
families would live together. Groups of these settlements would form a clan, or suka, and at times of
war, hunting and raiding expeditions, one suka would combine with others to form tribes. The leader of
each family was its senior male member known as the elder, or talonpoika, and each talonpoika would
join others in their tribe to form a tribal council. The most powerful families would provide horseback
armored warriors and would survive by farming and raising cattle. However, rarely would one
talonpoika be recognized as chief father, or isänta. An isänta would usually only be named for major
hunting, fur collecting and slave raiding expeditions. (The Northern Crusades, Lake Peipus 1242)
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One of the weakest Fennic tribes were the nomadic Saami or Sámi (also known as the Lappi, a
less than flattering description meaning “people who dress in rags” created by those who considered
them inferior) (The Saami – Reindeer People of the North, Carolyn Emerick, http:hubpages.com). Their
tribal structure was similar to other Fennian tribes except for their temporary villages of bark and skin
wigwams that could be easily moved. This allowed them to migrate with their reindeer between
northern Scandinavia, Fennoscandia, and the Kola Peninsula, an Arctic area known collectively as Sápmi.
They were perpetually on the move to wherever they could sustain themselves with hunting and fishing,
trading their furs, feathers and sometimes their children for goods from the Norwegians, Swedes and
other Fennic Tribes to the south such as the Karelians. However, these same southerners would also raid
the Saami and take what they wanted including their women and children. But the Saami were not the
only ones who endured such treatment since the raiders of the north, as well as those in other areas,
could just as easily become victims to stronger tribes or from retaliation from the tribes they had
recently raped and pillaged and former victims could be as ruthless as their former oppressors. For
instance, Henry of Livonia observed that the Est “…were accustomed to visit many hardships on their
captives, both young women and virgins, at all times by violating them and taking them as wives, each
taking two or three or more of them.” (The Northern Crusades)
Eventually, Fennian expansion would be halted on the southern shore of Lake Ladoga by
another race of people known as the Slavs which in the sixth century established Novgorod. Located
approximately 200 kilometers south of Lake Ladoga on the Volkhov River near Lake Ilmen, Novgorod had
long since become the areas main economic center and was populated by both Fennians and Slavs.
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod; A History of Finland; Lake Peipus 1242). Due to
language similarities, it is believed the Slavs originated north of the Carpathian Mountains and later split
into three groups around the seventh century (A History of Russia Vol 1). From the first group located to
the south, Bulgarians, Croats, Serbs and Slovenes would eventually arise. From the second located to the
west, would come the Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Moravians and other smaller groups. And from the third
located to the east, the Russians, Ukrainians and Belorussians would one day develop into distinct
nations as would many of the other Slavic subgroups. In time, the Eastern Slavs and Fennic tribes
intermarried and gave rise to another race known as the Great Russians. However, some Fennic tribes
would maintain their original identities, and three tribes in particular would give rise to the modern day
Russian republics of Komi, Mari El and Mordovia (A History of Russia Volume I: To 1917).
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From Scandinavia, peasants who had formerly been farmers became the seafaring warriors
known as Vikings. Without aid of any navigation tools other than the sun by day and stars by night, their
explorations would take them from the Orient to North America. After first spreading out over of the
farmable coastal areas of Scandinavia, it was once believed that these peasants began exploring due to
overpopulation and famine. However, more likely they explored in search of glory and plunder since, as
a culture, war was their religion, human sacrifice their sacrament, riches their desire and a glorious
death in battle their highest aspiration.
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While the Asa faith scorned death, those chosen Vikings who died heroically in battle would
awaken in Odin’s Hall in Valhalla. It was the everlastingly young and beautiful Valkyrie who watched the
battles from above and chose who would enter the hallowed Hall. Every night those same Valkyrie
would serve the chosen warriors meat from an immortal fatted hog and keep their goblets full from an
endless supply of mead. While not feasting and drinking their fill, the deceased warriors would prepare
for Ragnarök where they would fight to the death in single combat every night. Then the next morning,
they would awaken to Valkyrie tending their wounds which would spontaneously heal. And so it would
be every night and every morning for all eternity. (A History of Swedish People Vol 1;
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valkyrie)
With that belief system, the Vikings took to the seas and rivers in sometimes massive armadas
of ornately carved highly navigable dragon longships for the purpose raiding, raping, and killing with
impunity or terrorizing and subjugating weaker races requiring them to pay tribute or taking them as
slaves. From A History of the Swedish People, Vilhelm Moberg states, “They waged no regular wars, but
fell treacherously on peaceful coastal populations who had done them no harm.” The hardest hit were
the British and Frankish kingdoms that were laid to waste. In apocalyptic terms, the Europeans
considered them “the scourge of God, the Almighty’s judgment on their sins.” (A History of the Swedish
People)
Between 800-1050 A.D., the Swedish Vikings would expand east while the Norwegians and
Danes expanded west and south. Many of these glory seeking warriors would return to the grey skies,
long summer days and endless winter nights of home. Yet, many others would settle in the lands they
had first terrorized and then conquered. Once settled, the Vikings would often embrace the foreign
culture, frequently assimilate into their population, and sometimes even create new kingdoms. One
example was the Duchy of Normandy which was established by the Viking leader Ganger-Hrólf,
otherwise known as Rollo or as Robert following his conversion and baptism, after he signed the treaty
of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with Charles III of West Francia in 911. Rollo’s great, great, great, great, grandson
would become William I of England following his invasion of England and defeat the Anglo-Saxons at the
Battle of Hastings in 1066. Thereafter, he would be known as William the Conqueror. His grandson,
Henry II, would later conquer Ireland and his great grandson Richard would become famous during the
Crusades and forever after be known as the Lion Hearted. Furthermore, the Normans, as they had
become known, would eventually control Southern Italy, Sicily, Malta, parts of Palestine and would
frequently challenge the Western and Eastern Roman Empires for even more territory
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Duchy_of_Normandy; Normans). Another equally important example
was the founding of the Russian Empire by Swedish Vikings which would directly affect the future of all
Fennic tribes and the rest my story.
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Sometime prior to the 860s, a group of mostly Swedish Vikings began setting up staging areas
for raids by making use of trading posts and natural harbors along the southern Fennoscandian coast
and Lake Ladoga (A History of Russia Vol 1; A History of Finland). From there, they used the extensive
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river networks to penetrate into the Fennic-Slavic lands to the south and east. It would be these arteries
of water that would allow these raiders to control every trade route that passed through these lands as
well as subjugate the native populations requiring a regular tribute in exchange for peace. The local
Slavic tribes named the invaders Varangians, after the Slav word for “Scandinavian”. Soon, the
Varangians would intermarry with the Slavs and Fennians and become known as the Rus’, a name first
mentioned in The Primary Chronicle of Russia. While the origin of the word Rus is disputed, many
believe it was derived from the Finnish word “Ruotsi” which today means “Swedish”.
(www.etymonline.com) Therefore, the lands controlled by the Varangians would be known as the Land
of the Rus’ or Russia.
Based on The Primary Chronicle, the main source of information for this period, the first attempt
by the Varangians to subjugate the lands of the Slav and Fennic tribes ended in failure with the Viking
raiders being driven away. However, the tribes soon fell into discord and, around 862, they sent a
delegation to the Varangians asking them to appoint a leader to govern Novgorod. In response, the
semi-mythical Viking leader named Rurik sent a garrison to seize control of the trading town and to
subjugate its population. (A History of Russia Vol 1). Shortly thereafter, Rurik’s original capital of Ladoga,
located on the north end of Volkhov River near where the river drains into Lake Ladoga, was moved
downriver to Novgorod. (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Straya_Ladoga; Veliky_Novgorod).
Sometime later, two Swedish brothers named Askiold and Dir, who are thought to have been
companions of Rurik when he captured Novgorod, seized control of the major trading town of Kiev
located south of Novgorod on the middle Dnieper River. (A History of the Vikings) The town had been
founded around the turn of sixth century by the semi-nomadic Turkic Khazars and served as their
western most trading outpost. The Khazars were a multi-confessional group composed of pagans,
Tengrists, Jews, Christians and Muslims. While their aristocracy had converted to Judaism during the
prior century, they were still maintaining religious tolerance. Over the previous three centuries, they
had built a trade empire using the Silk Road after concluding a treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire in
620, making them one of their major trading partners. This alliance would eventually lead to a
confrontation between the emerging Russian and the ancient Eastern Roman Empire (A History of
Russia Vol 1, The Gates of Europe, https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars)
Around 880, a kinsman of Rurik named Oleg killed Askiold and Dir and captured Kiev for Rurik
and Novgorod. (The Gates of Europe; A History of the Vikings) Shortly thereafter according to legend, as
Rurik lay dying, he entrusted Oleg with his dominions and care of his young son Igor. Soon after
capturing Kiev, Oleg transferred the Russian capital to the former Khazar trading outpost in 882.
Following Oleg’s death, Igor would become leader of the Varangians until he was killed in 945 by a Slavic
tribe called the Derevlians who lived northeast of Kiev. While the chronicles emphasize the barbaric
nature of the tribe, Igor was actually murdered while attempting to extort additional tribute shortly
after his men had recently and violently done so. After Igor’s death, his wife would take control of Kiev
and brutally avenge her husband’s “murder” and impose an even heavier tribute on the tribe (A History
of Russia Vol 1). Her name was Olga and she would be the first woman ruler of Kiev. Moreover, after her
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baptism in Constantinople, she would also be its first Christian leader and later be sainted by the Russian
Orthodox Church.
From the time legendary Rurik took control of Novgorod and for the next 378 years, the
descendents of Rurik would eventually expand Russian territory into a vast area of ten major but lightly
populated principalities each named for their main cities and controlled by a Rurikid prince, or knez,
with one Grand Prince, or Veliki Knez, residing in Kiev. From these former eastern Slav and Fennian
lands, the Rus would extort tribute from the tribes inhabiting these and surrounding areas. Among the
Fennian tribes effected were the Hämäläiset, which the Rus’ called the Yem; the Karelians and the Vod
to north of Novgorod; the Est, also known as the Chud, and Livs to the west of Lake Chud, otherwise
known as Lake Peipus; the Ves located southeast of Karelia in the White Lake area; the Perm (which
include the Komi), Pechora and Yugra located north of the Dvina River and east to the Urals; and the
Cheremis (Mari) and Mordva located south of the Dvina and north of the Don River.
During these centuries, while the Veliki Knez resided in Kiev, Novgorod became a powerful city
state and the largest Russian principality. Its reputation would be summed up by the following medieval
proverb, “Who can stand against God and the Great Novgorod?” (Lake Peipus 1242). Still today, the city
is called Veliki Novgorod. As the city state expanded its control north and east along the regions
waterways, Novgorod eventually crossed into the Arctic and the northern Ural Mountains taking control
of indigenous Fennian tribes demanding tribute of furs, walrus ivory and dried fish. Furthermore,
administrative centers were set up in what was called the “Land of Midnight” to keep Fennic
populations in line and river routes open. Similar to North America’s western frontier several centuries
later, these wild northern lands were considered a land opportunity for those wishing to make a fresh
start and the populations who currently lived there were not a consideration.
However, while the northern Fennian tribes were quickly subjugated, eastern expansion was
much more hazardous since not all the tribes submitted without a fight. In fact, in 1079, one
Novgorodian army sent to collect tribute vanished without a trace and in 1193, the Yugra rebelled,
killing the majority of the Russians sent to the Pechora River to enforce Novgorod’s demands. (Lake
Peipus 1242, The Northern Crusades) According to David Nicole PhD, “The Russians even came to
believe that an evil people had been locked behind the Ural Mountains when Alexander the Great asked
God to free the world from such terrible folk. The only entrance was believed to be a tiny copper gate in
a ring of rock which would be opened on judgement day.” (Lake Peipus 1242) Southeast of Novgorod,
the principality of Suzdalia would also find some of the indigenous Fennian tribes less than cooperative.
The Mordva in particular were frequently in conflict with the Russians. Starting 1221 and continuing for
the next 10-15 years, the Suzdalian Prince Yuri II coordinated frequent attacks on the Mordva, “burning
their lands; slaughtering their cattle; and killing, capturing and scattering many of their people” (A
History of Russia Vol 1). In time, all the tribes would either conform to Rus’ demands, leave the lands
they once called home or be annihilated.
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Just as the western Vikings attacked and brought major cities such as London and Paris to their
knees, so also would the Rus’ as they continued south and southeastward toward the great trading cities
of the Black and Caspian Seas as well as the capitol of Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople. The
collision of the two empires would eventually lead to an alliance based on religion. While one empire
would fall in 1453, the other would carry the spirit of ancient Rome into the 20th century and to the
event that led directly to Finnish Independence: The Bolshevik Revolution.
The first recorded contact between the Rus’ and the Eastern Roman Empire occurred in 838
when the Rus’ (Rhos) king sent peace envoys to Constantinople to extend a hand of friendship. Who
exactly their “king” was is unknown. However, what is known is that they came from the North and that
they feared being attacked by hostile indigenous tribes, like the semi-nomadic and bellicose Turkic
Pechenegs, on their return trip home. Therefore, Emperor Theophilus sent the envoys on a detour
through German territory where they encountered the court of Charlemagne the Great’s son, Louis the
Pious, king of the Franks, who quickly recognized them as Swedes or Norsemen. However, this initial
friendship between the Rus’ and the Eastern Romans was short lived and within three decades the first
conflict between the Rus’ and the Eastern Romans would begin.
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(860) .
The conflict likely resulted from assistance the Eastern Romans gave the Khazars in building the
fortress of Sarkel on the left bank of the Don River, thereby giving them control of Sea of Azov located
northeast of the Crimean Peninsula. (The Gates of Europe) At sunset on June 18, 860, the Rus’ sailed
into the Bosporus with 200 longships plundering and burning every monastery, town and village they
passed while drifting slowly toward the opulent skyline of the capitol. While most longships would
anchor outside the Golden Horn, others continued to pillage the nearby islands in the Mamara.
Unfortunately for Constantinople, Emperor Michael III was away from the city with the imperial army
fighting against the Saracens (Arabs) in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) while the imperial Navy battled
the Saracens in the Aegean Sea. Unable to take the city by sea, the Russians attacked the massive land
walls without success. After exhausting their opportunities for plunder, the Rus’ simply disappeared.
However, in 874, the Kievian Rus would again make peace with the Eastern Romans and conclude a
treaty to provide mercenaries. These mercenaries would be the first of the elite protectors of the
Emperor which would one day be known as the Varangian Guard and before the next conflict would
assist the Eastern Romans in at least one military campaign against Muslims in Crete in 902. (The
Varangian Guard 988–1453)
In 907, a Slavic source named Nestor describes a second conflict. However, no other source
mentions the large scale attack made by Veliki Knez Oleg with 80,000 men, no less than 2000 longships
and a large body of land based cavalry. According to Nestor, while churches and palaces outside
Constantinople were pillaged, no actual fighting occurred since the Emperor Leo VI quickly capitulated
and agreed to a generous trade agreement. (Byzantium: The Apogee; A History of the Vikings)
While Nestor’s chronicles were the only source that reported the conflict of 907, the next major
challenge to the Eastern Roman Empire presented by the Kievian Rus’ in June, 941, was well
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documented. Returning with a vengeance, Veliki Knez Igor dispatched thousands of longships into the
Black Sea destined for the Bosporus and Constantinople beyond. And like 860, the imperial Navy was
away from the capitol. As a result, the city’s only defense was fifteen ancient ships slated for the scrap
yard. After news of the approaching armada reached the capitol, shipwrights worked feverishly to
prepare the dilapidated vessels for war arming them with the Eastern Empire’s secret weapon, a napalm
like substance called Greek fire. Once seaworthy, the pitiful mini-fleet was sent to the mouth of the
Bosporus. On June 11, the fifteen vessels arrived just as the Russian fleet appeared on the Black Sea’s
horizon. Once in range, the vessels began spewing Greek fire onto the colossal armada and quickly the
entire fleet was consumed in flames leaving very few survivors to report back to the Veliki Knez with
news of the disaster.
Undaunted, within a few years, Igor, members of almost every tribe in his domain and a large
force of Pecheneg mercenaries were headed back for revenge. In order to avoid more atrocities that
were sure to follow the Russian war path and since once again the Imperial Army was away (this time in
Mesopotamia fighting the crumbling caliphate of Baghdad), Emperor Romulus I hastily sent
ambassadors to negotiate a settlement with Igor. In the end, a heavy tribute payment would be
required to prevent further bloodshed and to divert the Pechenegs into what would soon be a
devastated Bulgaria. A temporary peace was once again achieved and the following year, a new political
and commercial treaty between the two states was concluded in Constantinople.
Still in 971, Veliki Knez Svyatoslav would again attempt to conquer the Eastern Roman Empire
with large force of Rus’, tribesmen and Pechenegs in what would be the first land battle between the
Russians and Eastern Romans. Under the command of Emperor John I Tzimisces, the confrontation
would again end with Imperial victory and a Russian blood bath. The following year after suffering yet
another defeat to John, Svyatoslav finally sought and received peace and requested a face to face
meeting with the Emperor. John agreed and the two men met by the Danube River. Arriving by boat,
Svyatoslav stepped onto the shore wearing a princely white robe and jeweled earring. He was described
as having blue eyes, a drooping mustache and a shaved head except for two long strands of blond hair
which served as badges of rank and affirmed his Viking heritage. John arrived mounted on his charger
dressed in his purple Imperial regalia and after dismounting, the two leaders discussed renewing the old
commercial treaty Svyatoslav’s father Igor and Romulus had agreed upon. After concluding their friendly
conversation, Svyatoslav respectfully bowed, stepped back into his boat and rowed away. (Byzantium:
The Apogee) On his return to Kiev, Svyatoslav was captured by his former Pecheneg allies. Needless to
say, they were less than thrilled with his defeat and that he brought back nothing more than his life in
payment for their alliance. But the Pechenegs made the best of the situation and turned his skull into a
drinking cup. (Byzantium: The Apogee)
By 988, the Russians were once again important trading partners with the birthplace of the
Orthodox Christianity (A History of Russia Vol 1). The following year, Emperor Basil II pleaded with Veliki
Knez Vladimir I for assistance in defeating rebel forces wishing to depose him. Feeling bound by his
father’s agreement with Emperor John, Vladimir offered Basil assistance in exchange for his sister Anna’s
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hand in marriage. Basil agreed but under one condition: Vladimir must embrace the Orthodox faith
(Byzantium: The Apogee). Since his wise grandmother Olga had been the first of the Rus’ to convert to
Orthodox Christianity 32 years earlier, it was not a hard decision since Vladimir believed his
grandmother would not have chosen an evil faith. Additionally, services at Constantinople’s magnificent
Hagia Sophia were awe inspiring to Vladimir’s men. As such, Vladimir believed similar church services in
similar cathedrals built in Russia would do the same for the rest of the Kievian Rus. Furthermore, from a
political standpoint, Orthodox Christianity would be a unifying ideology for his people. Vladimir had
already investigated other religions such as Judaism and Islam. After discussing Judaism with Jewish
envoys, which may or may not have been Khazars, Vladimir rejected their faith since the loss of
Jerusalem was to him a clear sign to him that God had abandoned them.
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27) Concerning Islam, Vladimir found
the Muslim religion objectionable because it required “...circumcision and abstinence from pork and
wine...” and stated, “drinking is the joy of the Russes. We cannot exist without that pleasure.” (A History
of Russia Vol 1) Only Orthodox Christianity seemed to be a good fit for the Russian people.
So Vladimir agreed to Basil’s demands and when the time came, the Veliki Knez sent six
thousand fully equipped Varangian mercenaries who, with the assistance of an initial salvo of Greek fire,
decimated the rebels. While Varangian mercenaries had already served the Eastern Roman Empire in at
least seven military campaigns from 902 to 968, these six thousand Varangians would be the first of the
elite axe wielding protectors of the Emperor known as the Varangian Guard. In years to come, the Guard
would attract glory seeking Vikings. However, after the Norman conquest of England, Anglo-Saxon
warriors would also serve as Varangians and the original Slavic word for Scandinavian would eventually
come to mean, “a group of men who had sworn oaths of allegiance and fellowship.” This prestigious
corps of mercenaries would abide by their oath to unquestionably serve the Emperors of the Eastern
Roman Empire until 1204 when Catholic forces of the Western Roman Empire conquered the Orthodox
capitol during the Fourth Crusade. They would also continue as protectors of the Emperors in the
temporary capital of Nicaea until 1261 when the Latin Empire in Constantinople was finally defeated and
the Eastern Empire was restored under the Palaiologos dynasty. However, thereafter the Varangian
Guard served only an ornamental role as a reminder of the Eastern Empire’s bygone glory.
Among Scandinavians, the Guard became a family tradition and its ranks would boast many
famous warriors from Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The most famous would be Harald Sigurdson, who
would come to be known as “Devastator of the Bulgarians” and “Stern Ruler” or Harada. After serving
the Emperor in the 1040’s, Harold Harada went on to become King of Norway. On September 25, 1066,
King Harada was killed while attempting to invade England near the city of York during at the Battle of
Stamford Bridge. To many, his death would mark the end of the Viking Age. Within weeks, the victorious
King Harold II Godwinson would become the last of England’s Anglo-Saxon kings when he also met his
end on October 14, 1066 during the Battle of Hastings marking the beginning of the Norman conquest of
England by William the Conqueror (Wikipedia.org; Byzantium: The Apogee; Byzantium: The Decline and
Fall; The Varangian Guard 988-1453).
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Prior to his conversion and marriage to Anna, the pagan Veliki Knez of Kiev was “insatiable in
vice” and had 800 concubines and four wives. However, much to Anna’s relief, who felt as if she had just
been sold into slavery by her brother, Vladimir was a changed man after his baptism. In the coming
years until his death 1015, he oversaw the building of many churches and monasteries, imposed
conversions and forced baptisms. Posthumously, he would be remembered as St. Vladimir of Kiev (A
History of Russia Vol 1; Byzantium: The Apogee). Vladimir’s conversion would bind Russia culturally to
the Eastern Roman and Greek Orthodox Empire and eventually create an irreconcilable separation with
Catholic Western Europe and soon to be Catholic Northern Europe.
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Following Vladimir’s death, a bloody civil war would ensure as his oldest son Svyatopolk
attempted to kill all his brothers to eliminate any rivals to his rule. The first to fall would be Boris and
Gleb, who allowed themselves to be murdered without a fight while kneeling alone in prayer. As a
result, the martyred brothers would become the first two saints of the new Russian Orthodox faith.
While Svyatopolk would succeed in eliminating one more of his five brothers, he would not defeat his
brother Yaroslav, Knez of Novgorod. Instead, he would die in retreat after being defeated along his Pole
and Pecheneg allies in 1019. Thereafter, he would be remembered as Svyatopolk the Accursed.
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sviatopolk_I_of_Kiev). Sometime later after Yaroslav’s only remaining
brother Mstislav, Knez of Chernigov, died in 1036, Yaroslav reunited the majority of the Russian lands
and ruled until his death in 1054. He would be remembered as Yaroslav the Wise for his intelligent
leadership and love of wisdom. Yet, in 1043, he would attempt unwise naval raid on Constantinople
which met the same fiery fate as the raid of 941. His attack would be the last Russian war against the
Eastern Roman Empire. (Byzantium: The Apogee)
Yaroslav the Wise’s grandson, Vladimir II Monomakh was the son of Vsevolod I and Anastasia,
the daughter of Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh. Shortly after Vladimir the Great
was born in 1053, his grandfather Constantine presented the newborn with the coronation regalia which
would not only be used by Vladimir but also during the coronation of all future Veliki Knezes and several
Tsars. The regalia included a Mongolian fur rimmed jeweled crown known as the cap of Monomakh, a
scepter, carnelian cup, splinters of the True Cross and the barmy (shoulder capes) (Ivan the Terrible).
Vladimir ruled the Kievian Rus from 1113 to 1125 and was the last great Veliki Knez before the dark
cloud of the Mongol Invasion ended Rus control of Russia in 1240. Known for restoring order to Kiev and
decreasing economic exploitation of the poor, Vladimir II would be remembered as Vladimir the Great
and soon an important city would be named in his honor. (A History of Russia Vol 1) Vladimir would
eventually marry the Anglo-Saxon princess Gyda, daughter of King Harold who killed at the Battle of
Hastings. Their son Mstislav would succeed his father and rule until his own death 1032.
In 1054, during the final year of Constantine Monomakh’s life, a great schism arose from
doctrinal disagreements between Pope Leo IX of Rome and Patriarch Michael Cerularius of
Constantinople, leading to the latter’s excommunication. The dispute actually started as a result of
Norman incursions into Southern Italy, the defeat of Papal forces at the Battle of Civitate and the Pope’s
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8 month imprisonment. Additionally, there was a feeling of betrayal by the papalists since the Eastern
Roman army had failed to aid them in their battle against the Normans. While Constantine’s military
commander Argyrus understood the importance of a papal alliance, Cerularius was against helping them
for purely doctrinal reasons. As a result, the Patriarch turned a request for aid into a religious dispute
after sending a purposely disrespectful letter to the Pope who was now dying. After Constantine heard
what Cerularius had done, he tried to repair the papal rift by ordering the Patriarch to send a second
more conciliatory letter. However, by then the furious and deathly ill Pope had already penned two
letters: the first insulting the Patriarch and rebuking him for his heretical views and a second warning
the emperor of consequences if the Patriarch persisted in his “…many and intolerable presumptions.”
Leo then ordered these letters to be hand delivered to Constantinople by three of his legates.
Unfortunately, one of the legates was vehemently anti-Greek and the other two were disgruntled
veterans of Civitate. Within weeks of their arrival, word of the Pope’s death reached Constantinople.
However, rather than return to Rome, the legates continued their own unyielding religious
demagoguery and excommunicated the Patriarch without any authority to now do so. Regardless of the
legitimacy of their actions, the damage was irreversible and the fracturing of Western Catholicism and
Eastern Orthodoxy was all but complete. With the exception of the Florence-Ferrara accords of 1437
and a short lived reunion of the churches which lasted until 1453, the result of the Patriarch Michael
Cerularius’ excommunication was permanent separation of Western and Eastern churches. (Byzantium:
The Apogee) As would be expected, the Russians would side with the Eastern Roman Empire. However,
the brief reconciliation and reestablishment of the Orthodox-Catholic Union would lead to a schism
between the Russian and Greek Orthodox Church. However, this schism would also be short lived since
the Eastern Roman Empire ceased to exist in 1453.
The end came on Tuesday, May 29, 1453. On that day, the 1,123-year-old empire founded by
Constantine the Great fell to the Turkic Ottomans and their 21-year-old leader, Sultan Mehmet II. While
the city would still be called Constantinople for a few centuries thereafter, Mehmet renamed
Constantine’s city, Istanbul, and in time the Eastern Roman Empire would be remembered as the
Byzantine Empire. Consequently, the leaders of the Russian Orthodox Church at the time believed the
fall of this great empire was divine retribution for their turning away from the one true faith. Some even
went as far as to praise the Islamic conqueror for having brought justice back to Constantinople saying
that “god does not love faith, but pravda or justice” and that while “the Greeks, though they honored
the gospel, listened to others and did not carry out the will of the Lord and fell into heresy.” (Ivan the
Terrible)
In the final epic battle for Constantinople, the last emperor, Constantine XI Palaeologus
Dragases died fighting on the great walls of the capitol. In 1472, the daughter of his brother Thomas,
Zoe-Sophia Paleologa, married the Veliki Knez of Vladimir-Muscovy, Ivan III, who had recently lost his
wife. The marriage was initiated by Pope Paul II, who hoped to gain a strong ally against the Turks, and
by Cardinal Bessarion of Nicaea, who still dreamed of the day the Church would once again be unified
However, the hopes and dreams of alliance and reunion would come to nothing since Russia required
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assistance from the Turks against their Catholic neighbor, Poland-Lithuania, and also because of simple
religious stubbornness. Regardless, the marriage would still have historic consequences.
Born Orthodox but raised as a Catholic in Rome, Zoe-Sofia traveled from the old Western capital
to the new standard barrier of Orthodox Christianity. She arrived in Muscovy with her retinue on
November 12, 1472. The following day, the Veliki Knez and Byzantine princess were wed without a
coronation ceremony. While most woman feared the glance of Ivan’s frightening eyes, Zoe-Sofia proved
to be a strong and cunning companion. As such, she avoided the seclusion commonly imposed on highborn women and even received foreign envoys. Ivan respected her opinions and even frequently acted
upon her suggestions. (Ivan the Terrible)
From the dowry she brought from Rome, Zoe-Sofia presented Ivan with the emblem of the
double-headed eagle which symbolized the spiritual heritage of the Eastern Roman Empire. In 1490,
Ivan adopted the emblem as Muscovy’s coat of arms. Half a century earlier when the Habsburg Dynasty
took control of the Holy Roman Empire, the Empire’s original single headed eagle insignia, called the
Reichsadler, was changed to a double headed Reichsadler. The symbol had been used by the Empire
since early medieval times and represented the power of the Imperial States. Since the Reichsadler was
derived from the Roman eagle standard, it is believed that Ivan began using the double-headed version
to counter the Habsburgs claim as the rightful heirs to Rome. The Habsburgs Dynasty and the First Reich
would not outlive Muscovy and the two Reichs that followed would adopt a single headed Reichsadler.
However, Russia continued to use the double headed eagle emblem. It is still today Russia’s national
coat of arms. Continued use of the emblem was just one of several reasons Moscow would come to be
known as the Third Rome.
Besides the Imperial connections and an almost 500-year history between the two Empires, The
Tale of the Vladimir Princes and later in the Book of Degrees of Imperial Genealogy written in the
sixteenth century, furthered the claim that Muscovy was the rightful heir to the legacy of ancient Rome.
Both books claimed that the Rurikid princes descended from a brother of Emperor Octavius Augustus
Caesar named Prus who was of Germanic origin. While these claims later proved false, Muscovy would
become the eastern Orthodox antagonist to the western Catholic Reich. After the fall of Constantinople
in 1453, the Veliki Knez and clergy of Muscovy worked to foster the image that Muscovy was the new
center of Orthodoxy and that the Veliki Knez was God’s instrument to rule over the Muscovites and
eventually all Russian believers. Some Orthodox clergy even began calling Muscovy the “new Israel”
risen from the ashes of Rome and Constantinople, both of which had suffered God’s judgment. And
while Ivan III would occasional use the title, it was Zoe-Sofia’s grandson, Ivan IV, better known as Ivan
the Terrible, who would first be crowned Tsar, or Caesar of all Russia. (Byzantium: The Decline and Fall;
A History of Russia Vol 1; Ivan the Terrible)