Download Review for Midterm and Final

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Review for Midterm and Final
Intro to Bio
List and describe steps to the Scientific Method.
What is a control variable, dependent (responding) variable, independent (manipulated)
variable? Set up a controlled experiment and identify each of the above variables.
Metric system. List the basic conversions within the metric system and what units apply to
length, mass, volume, density and temperature. Know how to convert within the metric system.
List/Explain the characteristics of living things. Be able to determine if something is living by
applying each of the characteristics.
Differentiate between viruses and cells/living things based on characteristics of life.
List the parts of the compound light microscope and their function.
List/be familiar with tools of the biologist, how they are used and what they are used for.
Tool
Function
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Matter and chemistry
List and describe the parts of the atom.
Differentiate between atomic number and mass number.
What are isotopes?
Compare ionic and covalent bonds. Label and give an example of each using electron dots.
Define the following classifications of matter:
Mixture
Solution
Solvent
Solute
Suspension
What is the pH scale and what does it measure?
Draw a pH scale and label acids, bases (alkaline), and neutral.
List characteristics of acids and relate to H+ and OH- concentrations
List characteristics of bases and relate to H+ and OH- concentrations
Organic compound:
Inorganic compound:
Polymerization:
Monomer:
Polymer:
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Why is water considered the universal solvent? Include a diagram with explanation.
Biochemistry relate to (catabolic/exogonic) and (anabolic/endogonic) reactions.
Explain and use labeled diagrams depicting dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis as it relates to
the following organic compounds:
*Carbohydrates (monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide)
*Lipids and fats.
Also, what are characteristics of fats? (Remember they’re waxy)
Explain/Use labeled diagram: What constitutes a saturated, unsaturated and polyunsaturated
fat?
*Proteins
*Nucleic acids (No diagram required)
What is an enzyme?
How does it work?
What is its purpose?
What 2 main things are they dependent upon and how do they affect enzyme function?
(Be able to interpret graphic data of enzyme function based on the above).
Define active site and substrate (include a labeled diagram for anabolic or catabolic).
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Cell structure and Function
State the cell theory.
Compare and contrast plant and animal cell structure. Draw a diagram & label.
Compare and contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Draw a diagram & label.
Describe the function of the following cell parts and organelles. ID what is found in plant and/or
animal cells. Be able to identify plant vs animal cells. Draw a picture of each if it helps.
*Cell membrane
*Cell wall
*Nucleus
*Nucleolus
*Nuclear envelope
*Cytoplasm
*Mitochondria (including structure)
*Chloroplast (including structure)
*Ribosomes
*Endoplasmic reticulum (rough & smooth)
*Golgi apparatus
*Lysosomes
*Vacuoles
*Plastids (leucoplast and chromoplast. You already did chloroplast above)!
*Cytoskeleton
*Centrioles
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Explain/Describe the various types of transport
*Passive transport
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
*Active transport
Endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis)
Exocytosis (secretions vs. excretions)
List and explain the levels of organization from cells to organ systems.
Classification
Who came up with the system of binomial nomenclature and why?
List the taxons from largest to smallest.
Describe the characteristics of the 6 Kingdoms and further classify them into Domains and 5
Kingdoms. (prokaryote vs eukaryote, cell structures, autotroph vs heterotroph (modes of
nutrition), mobile vs sessile, multicellular vs unicellular, examples).
Kingdom
Cell Type
Prokaryote
Eukaryote
Cell Structures
Eubacteria
Archaebacteria
Protista
Fungi
Animalia
Eukaryote
Cell walls
with
peptideolycan
Cell walls
without
peptideo-glycan
Number of
Cells
Unicellular
or
Multicellular
Some cell
walls of
cellulose
Some with
chloroplasts
Unicellular
but some
multicelular
No cell walls
or
chloroplasts
Mostly
multicellular
Some
unicellular
Mode of
Nutrition
Autotroph &
or Heterotroph
Mobility
Sessile
or
Mobile
Examples
Plantae
Some mobile,
(Protozoans,
Ex. amoeba
Paramecium,
euglena)
some sessile
Live in harsh
environments
methanogens
Multicellular
Ex.
Unicellular
Ex.
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Compare and contrast viruses and cells in terms of living/nonliving, genetic material and
reproduction. Viruses
Cells
How can viruses and bacteria be helpful? How are they pathogens (harmful/disease causing)?
Viruses
Bacteria
Helpful:
Helpful:
Harmful/pathogenic:
Harmful/pathogenic:
Protein Synthesis
What were the major contributions of the following scientists?
Avery, Mccarty, Macleod
Hershey and Chase
Rosalind Franklin & Wilkins
Chargaff
James Watson and Francis Crick
What is the function of DNA? (3 basics)
What is DNA made up of?
What is the shape of DNA?
List the 4 DNA nitrogenous bases, how they pair, and what type of bond forms.
List the parts of the DNA nucleotide.
List the steps involved in DNA Replication (DNA Synthesis) and represent them in a diagram.
Label the components.
List the 3 main types of RNA and their function.
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Compare and contrast
DNA
and
RNA.
DNA is located in the ___________ of the cell. It contains the genetic information. ____RNA
makes a complimentary copy of the DNA in the process of _______________. It then carries it
to the _____________ (part of the cell…why?) where it binds to _________RNA which has a
small and large subunit. mRNA has triplets called__________that are bonded to the
tRNA’s________ __________ in the process of ________________. Each tRNA carries a
specific _________ _________ which through the process of dehydration synthesis forms a
___________________. Protein synthesis occurs in the ________________ at the ___________.
How is the message sent to start or stop protein synthesis?
Enzyme used in the synthesis of mRNA. What is its function?
If a DNA molecule reads A T G C C T, what will be the mRNA bases that will pair up with it?
Using the above mRNA molecule, what will be the tRNA bases that will pair up with the
mRNA?
_ _ _ _ _ _
What will be the amino acid sequence? (use the genetic code chart).
Why are substitutions (point mutations) not as potentially harmful as frame shift mutations?
Explain, using the above sequence for both.
Define and state location for the following:
Replication:
Transcription:
Translation:
Mitosis and Meiosis
What types of cells undergo mitosis?
Why must cells divide?
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What is the cell cycle and how is it divided up? What is the longest part?
Compare and contrast
mitosis
and
meiosis.
List, diagram, and explain the stages (in order) of mitosis- cell division.
What cells undergo meiosis?
List, diagram, and explain the stages of meiosis.
In which stage of meiosis does crossing over, shuffling and synapsis occur?
How does sexual reproduction and these events contribute to increased diversity?
Why is meiosis necessary for sexual reproduction?
Explain 2n (diploid) and n (haploid) chromosome number.
If a cell has a 2N diploid number of 12, how many cells and chromosomes are present in each
cell after mitosis?
after meiosis?
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Define homologous pair.
What is a zygote?
Compare and contrast
spermatogenesis
and
oogenesis.
Genetics
Who was Gregor Mendell?
What is an allele?
What is a hybrid?
How did he know the recessive trait did not disappear?
What is a Punnet Square and how is it used?
Define the following:
Principle of Inheritance:
Prinicple of Dominance:
Segregation of alleles:
Independent assortment:
Review study guides, notes and examples for potential crosses. Be able to complete 1 and 2
trait crosses and predict genotype and phenotype probability for the following modes of
inheritance: Dominance, Co-Dominance, Incomplete Dominance, SeX Linked.
Cross a heterozygous tall plant with a short plant. (Tall is dominant).
Punnet square:
Genotype ratio:
Phenotype ratio:
Cross 2 people who are heterozygous for brown eyes.
Punnet square:
Genotype ratio:
Phenotype ratio:
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Cross a plant that is heterozygous for Round and Yellow peas, with a plant that is wrinkled
and heterozygous for yellow peas. (Round and Yellow are dominant, wrinkled and green are
recessive).
Punnet square:
Genotype ratio:
Phenotype ratio:
In the cross of AaBbCc
Show your work.
X
AaBbCc
what is the probability of getting AABbCc?
Mary: heterozygous for brown eyes, has blond hair and has blood type A (her dad was O)
Dave: blue eyes, is heterozygous for brown hair and has blood type B (his mom was O)
They have a child Dudley.
Show the Punnet square, genotype and phenotype ratio for Dudley for the following:
Eye color
Hair Color
G:
P:
G:
P:
Blood Type
G:
P:
The gene for color blindness is seX-linked. What is the probability that a child will be colorblind
if the mother is a carrier and the father has normal vision?
Punnet square:
Genotype ratio:
Phenotype ratio:
Name and describe 3 seX-linked genetic disorders.
*
*
*
Why is it more common among males to inherit a seX linked disorder?
What is a pedigree? Be able to interpret one and determine probable mode of inheritance..
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What is a Karyotype?
What are autosomes and how many do you have?
How many sex chromosomes?
How is sex determined?
What is nondysjunction?
What is Down’s syndrome?
Define the following using chromosome number and sex chromosomes.
Kleinfelter’s syndrome:
Turner’s syndrome:
In incomplete dominance, what happens when you cross a red carnation and a white carnation?
How can you tell incomplete dominance has occurred?
Punnet square:
Genotype ratio:
Phenotype ratio:
What happens when you cross the above F1 offspring with each other?
Show your Punnet square.
In some varieties of chickens, black feathers are co-dominant with white feathers. What happens
when you cross a black chicken with a white chicken?
Show your Punnet square:
How do you know this is co-dominance?
Genotype:
Phenotype:
Define the following genetic terms:
Test Cross:
Multiple alleles:
Polygenic traits:
Polyploidy:
Mutation:
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Point Mutation:
Frame-shift Mutation: (duplication or deletion)
Genetic engineering:
Ecology and Power Point information
Put the following terms in order from smallest to largest.
population, ecosystem, species, community.
List 4 examples of biotic factors and abiotic factors in a ecosystem of your choice.
Draw a food web for your aboce ecosystem with 4 producers, 3 primary consumers, 2 secondary
consumers and 1 tertiary consumer, then put them in a labeled ecological pyramid. Remove one
of the organisms and explain what will happen to the food web as a result?
If the producers have 1000 calories of energy, how much energy do tertiary consumer have?
Why? (How much energy is transferred to the next trophic level)?
Why are there usually not more that 4 or 5 trophic levels?
Define the following:
Carnivore:
Herbivore:
Omnivore:
Decomposer:
Detritovore:
Define and give an example of the following symbiotic relationships
Parasitism:
Commensalism:
Mutualism:
Why is predation NOT parasitism?
What are the 2 types of succession, which takes longer and why?
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What is a climax community?
What is carrying capacity?
Draw a graph of exponential growth.
Using the hare and fox, explain what causes the fluctuations in a predator-prey population?
Differentiate between a density dependent limiting factor and a density independent limiting
factor.
Describe/Diagram/Label the following nutrient cycles using terms & arrows.
Carbon cycle
Water cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Phosphorus cycle
Oxygen Cycle
Explain the laws of conservation as they relate to mass, matter and energy.
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Photosynthesis and Cell respiration
Compare and contrast the
mitochondria
and
chloroplast
Define the following:
Photosynthesis:
Cell Respiration:
Autotroph:
Heterotroph:
How is energy stored and released in ATP?
Compare and contrast
photosynthesis
and
cell respiration
The pigment chlorophyll absorbs ________ and ________ wavelengths and reflects _________
and _________ wavelengths.
Describe/Draw and label the structure of the chloroplast
Using a diagram, show/label the overview of photosynthesis that includes the light and dark
reactions. Name an electron acceptor ___________and carrier ___________ in the process?
In general, what happens in the light (dependent) reactions? Bullet your response.
In general, what happens in the dark reactions (Calvin Cycle)? Bullet your response.
What drives the dark reaction? Hint: Although it not light dependent, what is it dependent on?
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Diagram an overview of cell respiration showing Glycolysis, Kreb’s (Citric Acid) Cycle and
Electron Transport Chain (ETC).
In general, what happens in glycolysis and where does it take place?
In general, what happens in the Kreb’s (Citric Acid) Cycle, and where does it take place?
In general, what happens in the ETC, where does it take place and what must be present. Why?
What is fermentation? What are the 2 main types and what are their reactions?
What are the electron acceptors in cell respiration? (abbreviations)
What are the electron carriers in cell respiration? (abbreviations)
Evolution
Define evolution:
List and describe/explain 5 characteristics that support evolution.
*
*
*
*
*
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Differentiate between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
In terms of the Panda’s thumb, or giraffe’s long neck, describe both Lamark and Darwin’s
evolutionary theories.
Lamarck:
Darwin:
Give an example of natural selection.
Explain, using and example, how geographic isolation can lead to reproductive isolation and
speciation?
Define and give an example of microevolution.
What is a hominid?
What is adaptive radiation?
Compare divergent and convergent evolution. Give examples of each.
Divergent:
Convergent:
Define and give an example of the following.
Homologous structures:
Ex.
Analogous structures:
Ex.
What is genetic drift?
Distinguish between evolutionary theory and evolutionary fact.
List 4 different types of fossils and how they are formed, include sedimentary rock.
Compare absolute and relative dating.
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Human Systems/Review Notes
One hundred trillion cells make up body
Every cell independent unity & part of larger unit
Levels of organization in a multi-cellular organism
 Cells Basic unit of S&F
Specialized to perform certain Fx

Tissues Group of cells that perform single Fx
4 Basic Types
* Epithelial: glands & tissue that cover in/exterior body surfaces (skin, membranes)
* Connective: provides support for body & connect parts (bone, blood)
* Nerve: transmit nerve impulses thru body
*Muscle: cardiac, skeletal, smooth allows mvmt & produces heat

Organs Group of different tissue work together to perform single Fx
Ex. eye (epithelial, nervous, muscle, connective Fx sight

Organ System  Group of organs work together to perform complex Fxs
Homeostasis process of maintaining internal, relatively constant/balanced
conditions despite changes in external environment
Based on – Feedback Inhibition/Physiological loop
Ex. home thermostat set at 700C. Temp drops <700C furnace turns on, runs until temp =700C &
furnace turns off. When temp falls <700C furnace turns on & cycle repeats
Ex. Body Temp maintained by hypothalamus
Cold  neurons detect ↓ temp  hypothalamus releases chemicals
that ↑ chemical Rxs  produce heat
(arrector pili) muscles contract form goose bumps  produce heat
BT ↑ (- feedback) ↓ hypothalamus activity
Hot  neurons detect ↑ in temp  hypothalamus releases
chemicals that ↓ chemical Rxs (sluggish/tired produce less heat)
vessels dilate closer to skin  releases heat
prespire  evaporates  releases heat
BT↓ (- feedback) ↑ increases hypothalamus activity
Consult text for overview diagrams of the following
Nervous System
Structures: brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
Fx: recognizes & coordinates body’s response to changes in its in/external environments
Respiratory System
Structures: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs
Fx: provides O2 for C.R. & removes CO2 from body
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Digestive System
Structures: mouth, pharynx, stomach, sm/lg intestines, rectum
Fx: converts foods into simple molecules that can be used by cells
Absorbs food/nutrients, eliminates wastes
Excretory System
Structures: skin, lungs, kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra
Fx: eliminates waste products to help maintain homeostasis
Skeletal System
Structures: bones, cartilage, ligaments (bone to bone), tendons (muscle to bone)
Fx: support body, protect internal organs, allows mvmt, stores mineral reserves, site of
blood formation
Muscular System
Structures: skeletal muscle, smooth, muscle, cardiac muscle
Fx: works w/ skeletal system to produce mvmt, helps circulate blood & move food thru
digestive system
Circulatory System
Structures: heart, blood vessels, blood
Fx: brings O2, nutrients, hormones to cells, fights infection/clotting, removes cell wastes
(incl CO2), helps regulate body temp
Endocrine System
Structures: hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes
Fx: controls growth, development, metabolism, maintains homeostasis (chem. messengers/ducts)
Reproductive System
Structures: testes, epidydimis, vas deferens, urethra, penis males
ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina females
Fx: Produces reproductive cells, female also nurtures/protects embryo
Nervous System
NS controls & coordinates fxs throughout body & responds to in/external stimuli
Neurons: (nerve cells) basic unit of S&F of NS
Cells that transmit electrical signals (impulses) to carry messages
rapid & short duration
(vs endocrine’s slow release of chemical messengers that act over lg time)
3 Types of neurons based on direction impulse carried
 Sensory Neurons: carry impulses from sense organs spinal cord/brain
 Motor Neurons: carry impulses from brain/spinal cord muscles & glands
 Interneurons: connect sensory & motor neurons & carry impulses between them
Parts of a neuron
 Cell body: contains nucleus & cytoplasm & performs most of cell’s metabolism
 Dendrites: extensions from cell body, carry impulses from environment or other
neurons towards cell body
 Axons: long fiber carries impulses away from cell body  axon terminals
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(Axons & dendrites clustered into bundles Nerves)
Myelin Sheath: on some neurons (vertebrates/large) insulates axon w/ gaps called
nodes where membrane is exposed
Impulse moves along axon & jumps note to node ↑ impulse speed

The Nerve Impulse: flow of electrical current
Resting Neuron: Outside +
Inside --
difference in charge  electrically charged
Resting Potential
Na+ ions pumped out and K+ ions pumped in
(Na/K Pump run by ATP Active Transport)
Neuron Membrane selectively permeable to Na+ and K+ ions
but more K+ leaks out than Na+ in  creates overall – charge inside neuron c.m
(other – charged ions present, Ex. Cl-)

Moving Impulse: begins when a neuron is stimulated by another neuron or
environment
 sudden reversal of membrane potential (electrical charge)
Self propagating: impulse at any point along cm causes impulse at next point on cm
Impulse travels rapidly down axon away from cell body
 Steps of the Action Potential
Neuron c.m. has protein channels/gates that allow ions to pass thru normally closed
Leading edge of impulse Na+ gates open Na+ ions flow inside c.m
Reversal of charges
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Inside more + than outsideAction Potential / Nerve Impulse
As Impulse passes, K+ gates open and K+ ions flow out
 Restores Resting Potential (- inside + outside)
Threshold: Minimal level of a stimulus required to activate neuron
All or none principle
Impulse moves in 1 direction b/c Na+ gates close and cannot be re-opened for short time
Link to Action Potential Animation w/ Saltatory Conduction
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/matthews/actionp.html
Resting Potential
Action Potential
Na+ rush in
Depolarization
Re-polarization – Action Potential – Resting Potential
The Synapse (cleft/gap between neuron and another cell)
Impulse reaches axon terminals w/ vesicles/sacs filled w/ neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters chemicals used by neuron to transmit impulse across synapse to
another cell (ex. another type of neuron or muscle cell)
 Impulse arrives at axon terminal
 Vesicles release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft/gap
 Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft & attach to receptors on next cell
 Stimulus causes Na+ ions to rush into cell
 If threshold met/exceeded new impulse begins or Rx occurs
(ex. muscle contraction)
 Neurotransmitters quickly broken ↓ by enzymes
taken up & recycled by axon terminal
diffuse away
???How do you think abnormal levels of neurotransmitters affect Fx of N.S?
(Either ↑ or ↓ transmission of nerve impulse)
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Divisions of the Nervous System
Nervous System  2 main subdivisions
CNS (control center of the body)
PNS (relays commands from CNS and receives info from environment)
CNS  Brain and Spinal Cord
Relays messages, processes & analyses info
Skull & Vertebrae in spinal column protect brain & spinal cord
Brain & Spinal Cord wrapped in 3 layers of Connective Tissue Meninges
(outer) Dura, (middle) Arachnoid, (inner) Pia matter
Between Meninges & CNS tissue space filled w/ CSF bathes brain & spinal cord
Shock absorber—Protects
Allows exchange of nutrients & waste products between blood & nervous tissue
The Brain: where impulses flow to & from which impulses originate from
part of brain damaged  determine effects
Figure 35-9 The Brain
Section 35-3
Cerebrum
Thalamus
Pineal
gland
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Pituitary gland
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Go to
Section:

Cerebrum (lgst. most prominent part of brain)
Voluntary/Conscious activities
Intelligence, Learning. Judgment
Deep groove divides cerebrum into LT & RT hemispheres
Hemispheres connected by band of tissue corpus callosum
Folds/Grooves ↑ surface area
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Each hemisphere of cerebrum divided into lobes (after skull bones that
Frontal Lobe (front) voluntary muscle mvmt
cover them)
Parietal Lobe (behind frontal)
Temporal Lobe (sides)
Occipital Lobe (back)
Each ½ of cerebrum deals w/ opposite side of body
Sensations from LT side of body  RT hemisphere
Sensations from RT side of body  LT hemisphere
Commands to move muscles also opposite
LT Hemisphere controls RT side of body
RT Hemisphere controls LT side of body
Studies suggest RT Hemisphere  associated w/ creativity & artistic ability
LT Hemisphere  associated w/ analytical & mathematical ability
2 Layers of Cerebrum
(outer) Cerebral Cortex  gray matter densely pkd nerve cell bodies
Processes info from sense organs & controls body mvmts
(inner)  white matter (bundles of axons & myelin sheaths)
connects cerebral cortex & brain stem

Cerebellum (2nd lgst region of brain)
Located at back of skull
(Commands to move from Cerebral Cortex but)
Cerebellum coordinates & balances actions of muscles
smooth & efficient mvmt/graceful
 Brain Stem Connects brain & spinal cord
Located just below cerebellum
Midbrain - Pons - Medulla Oblongata
Switchboard—regulates flow of info from brain & rest of body
Fx’s  regulates BP, heart rate, breathing, swallowing

Thalamus & Hypothalamus (between brain stem & cerebrum)
Thalamus: receives messages from all sensory receptors throughout body
then relays info to proper region of cerebrum for further processing
Hypothalamus: (just below thalamus)
Control center for hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, BT
Controls coordination of NS & Endocrine System
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Spinal Cord: main communications link between brain & rest of body
31 prs of spinal nerves branch out from spinal cord connect brain
to all parts of body
Reflex: quick, automatic response to stimulus (ex. sneezing, blinking, knee jerk)
Allows body to respond to danger fast w/o thinking!
Processed directly in/out spinal cord then to brain
Sensory neuron  spinal cord (Interneuron)  Motor Neuron  response effector/
muscle
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The Peripheral Nervous System: lies outside CNS
Consists of nerves & associated cells that are not part of brain & spinal cord
 Cranial nerves that pass thru skull openings stimulate regions of head & neck
 Spinal Nerves
 Ganglia (collections of nerve cell bodies)
Sensory Division of PNS: transmits impulses from sense organs CNS
Motor Division of PNS: transmits impulses from CNS to muscles/glands (effectors)
Motor Division of PNS divided into

Somatic NS: regulates activities under conscious control
(ex. mvmt of skeletal muscle uses motor neurons of Somatic NS)
Some somatic nerves also involved w/ reflex arc (act w/o conscious control
Reflex Arc (Rx before message reaches CNS)
sensory receptor sensory neuron (interneuron in spinal cord sometimes) 
motor neuron effector (muscle for mvmt)

Autonomic NS: regulates autonomic/involuntary body fxs not under
conscious control (Ex. pupil reflex, digestion w/ sm muscle)
Opposing effects
Sympathetic NS  speeds up Rxs (gas pedal)
Parasympathetic slows down Rxs (brake pedal)
needed for homeostasis between body systems!
Ex. Running Sympathetic NS speeds up heart rate & flow of blood to skeletal
muscles, stimulates sweat glands & adrenal glands
Parasympathetic NS slows down contractions of smooth muscles
in digestive system
stop running what happens??
Parasympathetic NS slows down heart rate & flow of blood to
skeletal muscles
Sympathetic NS increases contractions of smooth muscles in
digestive system
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The Skeletal System
Skeleton composed of connective tissue called bone, cartilage, ligaments
Structure  Function: structure of hip bones mvmt walk upright
also, male/female  different fx’s
structure of hand bones  dexterity
opposable thumbs grasp
size/shape of skull  well developed brain
Skeleton: supports body
protects internal organs
provides mvmt
stores mineral reserves
site for blood cell formation
structure is strong/flexible w/o ↑ weight
Ex. skull/brain rib cage/heart & lungs
provides system of levers muscle use to  mvmt
Ca, salts, P
blood cells produced in soft red marrow that fills
internal cavities of some bones (long and flat)
206 bones make up axial and appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton supports central axis of body
skull, vertebral column, rib cage
Appendicular skeleton arms, legs, pelvis, shoulder
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Structure of bones: Network of living cells & protein fibers surrounded by Ca salts
Periosteum: tough layer of connective tissue that surrounds bone
Blood vessels pass thru  carry O2 & nutrients to bone beneath
Beneath periosteum
Compact Bone: Dense but not solid b/c of network
 Haversian Canals that contain blood vessels & nerves
Spongy Bone: less dense & found inside the outer layer of compact bone
found in the ends of long bones & in middle of short flat bones
lattice like network  ↑ strength w/o adding lots of weight
Osteocytes: bone cells imbedded in matrix of Havesian System
Osteoclasts: break bone ↓
Osteoblasts: produce bone
Despite fact that we stop growing,
constant bone loss/bone repair continues
ue ccocontinues
Bone Marrow: soft tissue w/in bone cavities
Yellow Marrow mostly fat cells
Red Marrow  produces RBC’s, some WBC’s & Plts
Development of Bones
Embryos mostly cartilage connective tissue w/ cells scattered in network of tough
collagen & flexible elastin fibers
w/ No blood vessels  relies on diffusion of nutrients
from surrounding blood vessels
Ossification: process of replacing cartilage w/ bone begins before birth
Osteoblasts secrete mineral deposits that replace cartilage  osteocytes
(when osteoblasts surrounded by bone tissue they mature into osteocytes)
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Long bones w/ growth plates at ends
Growth of cartilage at ends  bones lengthen
 cartilage replaced by bone tissue
S&F Cartilage  (flexibility) found in nose, ears
& rib cage allows rib cage to move during breathing
Types of Joints Determined by range of mvmt
 Immovable: Fixed, interlocked, No mvmt  skull
 Slightly Movable: Permit small amt of restricted mvmt  between vertebrae
pubic symphisis
 Freely Movable: Permit mvmt in 1 or more directions
Grouped according to structure & types of mvmt
Ball & Socket permit mvmt in many directions (widest range of mvmt) hip/shoulder
Hinge  permit back & forth mvmt (in 2 directions)
Pivot  allow bone to rotate around another (neck atlas & axis vertebrae)
Saddle  permit bone to slide in 2 directions (thumb)
Structure of Joints (S&F)
Freely movable joints cartilage covers bones where they come together
protects bones ↓ friction
fibrous joint capsule helps hold joint together but permit mvmt
w/ synovial fluid  lubricates
Some freely movable joints bursa  sac filled w/ synovial fluid
↓friction & shock absorber
Ligaments: connect bone to bone in a joint
Tendons: connect muscle to bone
Skeletal System Disorders
Osteoporosis: weakening of bones due to Ca loss
* older women during menopause Ca requirements ↑
Ca removed from bones  makes them weak/brittle fractures
↑ Ca intake, weight bearing exercises, Vit D helps Ca absorption
28
The Muscular System
Muscular System Function: Mvmt
Heat production
40% of weight = muscle
3 Types of muscle tissue w/ specialized fxs
(StructureFunction)
Skeletal Muscle: (striated/voluntary)
attached to bones
produce voluntary (conscious NS) mvmt of skeletal system
dark bands striations
long w/ many nuclei (1mm-30cm)  referred to as muscle fibers
complete skeletal muscle consists of muscle fibers, connective tissue, blood vessels & nerves
Smooth Muscle: (non-striated/involuntary)
spindle shaped
1 nucleus
found in walls of hollow structures (stomach),
blood vessels & digestive tract
control blood flow thru circulatory system, pupil size, mvmt of food
thru digestive tract
gap junctions between smooth muscle cells allow impulses to
move from 1 cell to next w/o NS stimulation
Cardiac (heart) Muscle: (striated/involuntary) branched for spreading contraction
1-2 nuclei
Involuntary
Striated like skeletal  perform hard mechanical pumping
Involuntary like smooth keeps beating w/o voluntary control
http://www.bioedonline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?tk=5&dpg=10
29
Muscle Contraction (of skeletal muscle) S&F cardiac similar b/c of striations but not
smooth which provides for different type of contraction
Skeletal Muscle has bundles of muscle fibers (muscle cells) that are made up of
myofibrils/myofilaments  thin filaments contain protein actin
thick filaments contain protein myosin
Striations in skeletal muscle from alternating actin/myosin filaments
Filaments arranged in units called sarcomeres  separated by Z lines
When muscle relaxed, no thin filaments in center of sarcomere
Sliding Filament Model/Theory
Muscle contraction thin actin filaments slide over thick myosin filaments
Thick myosin filament has knobs that form a cross bridge w/ binding sites on thin actin
filament  actin filament slides towards center of sarcomere
distance between Z lines ↓ (knob/cross bridge detaches from
actin, process repeats)
muscle contract  shortens/thickens
ATP provides energy for muscle contraction (aerobic CR & lactic acid fermentation)
Control of Muscle Contraction
Motor neurons connect CNS to skeletal muscle cells at neuromuscular junction
Impulse  vesicles in axon terminals release neurotransmitter acetylcholine  diffuses across
synapse to cm of muscle fiber  causes release of Ca2+ ions  trigger thin actin & thick myosin
to interact  muscle contraction
30
Muscle cell remains contracted until release of acetylcholine stops & enzyme produced at axon
terminals destroys acetylcholine, it diffuses away or is reabsorbed by axon terminal
Cross bridges stop forming muscle contraction ends.
Strong vs Weak contraction: result of # of muscle cells contracting within muscle
Muscle building  adds myofibrils to muscle cell  hypertrophy
Muscle loss myofibrils in muscle cell lose myofibrils  atrophy
Spinal Cord injury: Injury interrupts pathway of impulses from brain nerves that
controlmuscles
Without impulses from nerves muscles can’t contract  paralysis
How Muscles and Bones Interact
Skeletal muscles: generate force & produce mvmt by contracting/ pulling on bones
joined to bones by tough connective tissue tendons
Tendons attach muscle to bone & pull on bones so they work like levers
joint fxs as fulcrum (fixed point around which lever moves around)
muscle provides force
Several muscles surround each joint that pull in different directions
Most skeletal muscles work in opposing pairs: one muscle contracts while other relaxes
Biceps contracts bends/flexes elbow joint Triceps/relaxed
Triceps contract opens/extends elbow
Biceps/relaxed
Controlled mvmt requires action of both muscle groups  antagonists
Hold tennis racket/violin both biceps & triceps must contract in balance
Brain must learn how to work opposing muscle pairs for precise joint mvmt
31
Exercise & Health
Partial contraction resting muscle tone & posture even when you are relaxed!
Regular exercise maintains muscle strength & flexibility
firm & ↑ in size by adding actin & myosin protein filaments
excessive hypertrophy
muscles not used  ↓ in size by losing actin & myosin protein filaments  atrophy
Aerobic exercise efficient body systems
heart & lungs ↑ efficiency ↑ endurance so less fatigue w/ activity
Regular exercise  strengthens bones  thicker/stronger  injury less likely
Resistance exercise ↑ muscle size & strength ↓ body fat ↑ muscle mass 
↑ coordination & flexibility
The Circulatory System
Each breath brings O2 into Respiratory System needed by cells in body
(to produce ATP thru CR)
Beating heart force that moves O2 rich blood thru Circulatory System
Circulatory & Respiratory Systems supply cells throughout body w/ nutrients & O2 and w/
Excretory System filter blood to remove wastes from cell metabolism
Fx’s of Circulatory System
(needed in large organisms  humans/vertebrates vs sm organisms  diffusion)
Closed system circulating blood contained w/in vessels
Circulatory System Structures: Heart that pumps Blood thru Vessels
Heart: Size of fist
Enclosed in protective tissue Pericardium
2 thin layers of epithelial & connective tissue surround myocardium (heart muscle)
Contractions of myocardium pump blood thru circulatory system
Avg 72 contractions/min w/ 70ml/contraction
 5L blood/min
Septum: Divides heart into RT/LT prevents mixing of O2 rich on LT w/ deO2 on RT
32
Anatomical
Rt side
Anatomical
Lt side
septum
4 Chambers
2 Atrium/Atria: Upper receiving chambers
2 Ventricles: Lower discharging chambers
Circulation Thru the Body
Heart Fx’s as 2 separate pumps:
Pulmonary Circulation: RT side of heart  pumps deO2 blood to Lungs
In lungs CO2 out & O2 in (diffusion)
O2 rich blood flows to LT side of heart
Systemic Circulation: Blood pumped from LT side of heart  Body
Blood that returns to RT side of heart deO2 (O2 poor) b/c cells absorbed O2 & loaded blood w/ CO2
from cell metabolism/CR via diffusion
Circulation thru Heart (1 way flow  efficient)
Blood enters heart thru LT & RT atria (receiving chambers)
Heart contracts blood flows into ventricles  either body (systemic) or lungs (pulmonary)
33
Valves: Fx  Keeps blood moving in 1 direction
2 flaps of connective tissue between atria & ventricles (AV valves)
Tricuspid between RT atrium & RT ventricle
Bicuspid/Mitral between LT atrium & LT ventricle
Blood moving from atria  ventricles keeps valves open
When ventricles contract AV valves close LUB & prevent backflow into atria
2 valves at ventricle exits (Semilunar Valves)
Pulmonary Valve between RT ventricle & Pulmonary Artery
Aortic Valve between LT ventricle & aorta
DUB when semilunar valves close & prevent backflow into ventricles
Damaged valves repaired b/c ↓ efficiecy
Blood flow thru body * = d-eoxygentated * = oxygenated
Capillaries deO2  venules  veins  superior/inferior vena cava RT atria 
tricuspid  RT ventricle  pulmonary valve  *pulmonary arteries*  lungs (O2
picked up/ CO2 dropped off / diffusion) O2 blood returns to heart via *pulmonary veins*
 LT atrium  mitral/bicuspid valve  LT ventricle  aorta  arteries  arterioles
 capillaries O2 dropped off CO2 picked up  start again!
Heartbeat
2 networks of fibers: one in atria
one in ventricles
when single fiber in either network stimulated  network contracts as unit
Each contraction begins w/ SA Node (Sinoatrial Node)  Pace Maker in RT atrium
Impulse spreads from SA Node  network of fibers in Atria  picked up by Atrioventricular
Node (bundle of fibers) & carried to network of fibers in ventricles
2 step pattern of contraction makes hear pump efficient
When network in atria contract blood in atria  ventricles
When network in ventricles contract blood in ventricles  flows out of heart
Heartbeat ↑ or ↓ based on O2 need
Vigorous exercise need ↑ O2 for CR (ATP production) heart rate  200bpm (from 72)
Controlled by Autonomic NS (Brain Stem regulates BP, HR, breathing, swallowing)
Neurotransmitters released by sympathetic NS ↑ heart rate
Antagonistic
Neurotransmitters released by parasympathetic NS ↓ heart rate
34
CNS (brain/spinal cord)
NS
Somatic NS (skeletal/voluntary)
Motor nerves
PNS
sympathetic ↑
Autonomic NS (involuntary/smooth/cardiac)
Sensory nerves
parasympathetic ↓
Blood Vessels
O2 blood (left side of heart) leaves LT ventricle  Aorta  body
Blood is circulatory system flows thru 3 types of blood vessels: Arteries
Capillaries
Veins
Arteries: Lg vessels that carry blood away from heart
O2 except for pulmonary artery (going to lungs to get O2)
Thick walls to withstand pressure produced when heart contracts/blood pumped
Connective tissue & Smooth Muscle (thicker), Endothelium
 smaller arterioles
Capillaries: Smallest blood vessels
Walls 1 cell thick for diffusion of nutrients, gases, wastes
Blood cells pass single file
 smaller than veins venules collect into veins
Veins: Returns blood to heart
Connective tissue & smooth Muscle (thinner), Endothelium (like arteries)
Valves (open 1 way) keep blood moving in 1 direction  heart
Many veins located near skeletal muscle  contractions help move blood thru veins
often against force of gravity
Exercise prevents pooling of blood & stretching of veins
If walls weaken blood pools in veins  varicose veins
* post mortem pool/ all muscle contractions stop
35
Capillaries: site of O2, CO2, nutrient
and waste exchange
Blood
Heart contract  produces pressure
Force of blood on artery walls = BP
Pressure
BP ↑ when hear contracts and ↓ when hear relaxes
Measure BP w/ sphygmomanometer & cuff wrapped around upper arm (Typical 120/80)
Air pumped into cuff until flow thru artery is blocked
As pressure is released listen to pulse w/ stethoscope (#’s w/ pressure gauge)
1st # systolic  force felt in arteries when ventricles contract
2nd # diastolic  force felt in arteries when ventricles relax *bad if high
Body regulates BP in 2 ways
 Sensory receptors in body detect BP & send messages to medulla oblongata in (brain
stem)
BP too high  Autonomic NS releases neurotransmitters  smooth
muscles in blood vessels to relax (↓BP)
BP too low  neurotransmitters  smooth muscles in blood vessels to
constract (↑BP)

Kidneys remove/retain H2O from blood & regulate BP
BP too high Hormones released cause kidneys to remove more H2O from
blood  reduces volume  ↓BP
BP too low  release of kidney enzyme renin  activates hormone
angiotensin  causes arterioles to constrict  ↑BP
Angiotensin also stimulates adrenal glands to release aldosterone  causes
kidneys to retain salt  leads to ↑ H2O in blood  ↑BP
36
Diseases of Circulatory System
Cardiovascular Disease: heart disease & stroke leading cause of death/disability in US
2 main causes  High BP & Atherosclerosis  force heart to work harder

High BP/Hypertension
 weakens/damages heart muscle & vessels ↑ incidence of heart attack/stroke

Atherosclerosis
 plaque (fat deposits) build up on inner walls of arteries  ↑BP
Atherosclerosis in coronary arteries (bring nutrients,O2 to heart)  MI
MI symptoms: nausea, shortness or breath, severe/crushing chest pain
Early detection  new medications ↑ blood flow to heart if given early!
Atherosclerosis in carotid arteries (brings nutrient, O2 to brain)  stroke
Blood clots from Atherosclerosis break free  block brain vessel  stroke
Regular exercise  heart stronger, ↑ endurance-efficiency, ↓wt & body fat, ↓ stress
Balanced Diet ↓ in fats (sat) & cholesterol, ↓wt & body fat, ↓ chance of atherosclerosis
Blood
Circulatory System carries blood thru vessels  body
Blood: Connective Tissue
Contains dissolved substances & specialized cells
Collects O2 from lungs, nutrients from digestive tract, waste products from tissues
Regulates body temp
RBC’s carry O2 from lungs  cells & CO2 from cells  lungs
WBC’s fight infection
Platelets help clotting
Human Body has 4-6L of blood
45% cells
55% liquid plasma  liquid that suspends cells
Plasma: 90% H2O
10% dissolved gases, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste products,
& plasma proteins
Plasma Proteins (3 groups)
Albumins & Globulins: transport fatty acids, hormones, vitamins
Albumins: regulate osmotic pressure & blood volume
Globulins: fight viral/bacterial infections
Fibrinogen: helps in blood clotting
37
Blood Cells: Cellular portion of blood
RBC’s/ Erythrocytes: 5million/ml blood
Transport O2/CO2
Color from Hgb (Fe containing protein binds O2 in lungs &
transports it to body cells).
Biconcave disks ↑ SA carries ↑O2
produced from stem cells in red bone marrow
(ends of lg bones & in flat bones)
Fill w/ Hgb & lose nuclei/organelles
120 day life span (no nucleus)  destroyed in liver & spleen
*poikilocytosis/anisocytosis  anemiasinadeq O2 carry capacity
b/c of shape or RBC #
WBC’s/ Leukocytes: Part of Immune System
7000/ml blood (↑ WBC = infection)
Produced in red bone marrow from stem cells
Nucleated (life span days, months, years)
Guard vs infections (bacterial, viral, parasitic etc)
5 Types / Specific Fx: Phagocytes (Neut’s & Mono’s)  engulf/digest
Baso’s  release chemicals (histamines) that ↑ blood flow to
area redness/swelling associated w/ allergies,
release anticoagulants  clotting
Eos  attach parasites, ↓ inflammation associated w/ allergies
Lymphocytes  produce Ab’s (proteins that help destroy Pathogens)
Help produce Immunity
38
Platelets and Blood Clotting




Plts (cell fragments from red bone marrow)  contact w/ broken vessel
Plt surfaces become sticky  cluster of Plts  release clotting factors
(proteins/enzymes)
Chemical Rxs  Thromboplastin  converts Prothrombin (in plasma)  Thrombin
Thrombin converts Fibrinogen  sticky mesh fibrin filaments  Cells trapped
 produce clot, bleeding stops
Bleeding Disorders: factors in clotting cascade deficient
Hemophilia inherited genetic disorder from deficient/defective factor VIII
Treatment injections of missing clotting factors
The Respiratory System
Respiration and Breathing
 Breathing mvmt of air in/out of lungs
 C.R. in mitochondria release Energy from break↓ of food particles (w/O2)  ATP
 Respiration Organism Level  Process of gas exchange between lungs & env.
Release of CO2 from CR uptake of O2 from air
Human Respiratory System
Fx  exchange of O2 & CO2 between Blood, Air, Tissues
nose/mouth pharynx larynx trachea Lt/Rt bronchi bronchioles alveoli


Air enters nose/mouth  pharynx (throat) passage for food/air
 larynx (at top of trachea) w/ elastic folds (vocal chords)
Muscles pull vocal chords together
Cause chords to vibrate  produce sound
 Trachea/windpipe (cartilage) S&F/ prevents collapse
 Epiglottis (flap of tissue) covers trachea entrance when
food swallowed (food  esophagus)
Air warmed, moistened, filtered  protects lung tissue for efficient gas exchange
 hairs line nasal cavity
 cells lining resp tract produce mucus trap particles
 cilia sweep particles & mucus away from lungs  pharynx
swallowed or spit put
* smoking/tobacco paralyzes cilia  crap gets into lungs  black!
 Rt/Lt Bronchi branch off trachea lead to Lungs
 smaller bronchi  Bronchioles
Surrounded by smooth muscle for support & enables
Autonomic NS to regulate size of passageways
 Alveoli clusters site of gas exchange at end of bronchioles
Network of capillaries surround each Alveolus
Blood w/ CO2 & air w/ O2 side by side Exchange/Diffusion
O2 carried by Hemoglobin protein in RBC’s (O2 binds to Fe in Hgb molecule)
39
Site of gas exchange
Blood drops off CO2 & picks up O2
Breathing Mvmt of air in/out of lungs
No muscles connected to lungs
Force that drives air into lungs from Air Pressure




Lungs sealed in 2 sacs (pleural membranes) inside chest cavity
(heart just Lt of center Lt lung 2 lobes Rt lung 3 lobes)
Diaphragm muscle at bottom of chest cavity
Inhale Diaphragm contracts, moves ↓, rib cage rises and ↑ volume of chest cavity
Chest cavity tightly sealed, partial vacuum created inside chest cavity
b/c of atmospheric pressure air rushes into breathing passages
ExhalePassive event
Rib cage lowers as diaphragm relaxes & moves back up
↓ volume of chest cavity
Pressure in chest cavity becomes greater than atmospheric pressure
Air rushes back out of lungs
Ah, but…greater force needed to blow out birthday candles
Muscles surrounding chest cavity provide extra force & contract as diaphragm relaxes
System works b/c chest cavity is sealed.
Puncture wound to chest  air leaks in  lose vacuum  lungs collapse
40
How Breathing is Controlled
Breathing voluntary but ultimately involuntary Fx
Medulla Oblongata in brain stem controls breathing
Autonomic Nerves from Medulla Oblongata to diaphragm & chest muscles produce cycles of
contraction that bring air into lungs
Cells in Medulla Oblongata’s breathing center monitor amount of CO2 in blood
As blood CO2 levels ↑, nerve impulses from breathing center cause diaphragm to contract
Brings air into lungs
Higher blood [CO2] stronger the impulse to breathe
Can’t hold your breath!
Plane at high altitudes: ↓ O2 but cabin pressurized
Passengers have to be told to put on O2 masks b/c body starving for O2 but CO2 levels have not ↑
causing you to breathe involuntarily!
Everest climbers rest camps  Polycythemic ↑ # RBC’s to ↑ O2 carrying capacity
Blood Doping
Tobacco and the Respiratory System





Nicotine: Addictive, Stimulant drug that ↑’s heart rate & BP
CO: Poisonous gas  blocks transport of O2 by Hgb in RBC’s
CO binds 200x’s faster than O2 at same Hgb site
Deprives heart & other organs of O2 required to Fx efficiently
Tar: contains # of cancer causing cmpds
Nicotine & CO paralyze cilia inhaled particles stick to sides of Resp Tract
 smokers cough, or  to lungs  damage
Irritation from mucus  lining of Resp Tract to swell &↓ airflow to alveoli
41
Diseases Caused by Smoking

Chronic Bronchitis: Bronchi swell & clogged w/ mucus
Simple activities like climbing stairs becomes difficult
 Emphysema: Loss of elasticity in lung tissue makes breathing difficult
Can’t get enough O2 in
Can’t get CO2 out
 Lung Cancer: cells spread to other locations in body deadly
 Heart Disease: Smoking constricts/narrows blood vessels  ↑ BP
Heart works harder
Smoking and the Nonsmoker
2nd hand smoke damaging to anyone who inhales it
Especially young kids  lungs still developing  Res
Digestion System
Food and Nutrition
Food & Energy: Food provides body w/ Energy
Cells convert chemical energy stored in food  ATP
Energy in food can be measured by burning it  converted to heat
 measured in calories
calorie: amt of heat needed to raise 1gm H2O 10 C
1 Calorie: = 1000calories = 1 kcal
Nutrients: Substances in food that supply energy (ATP) & raw materials req’d for
Chemical Rx’s, growth, repair, development
H2O, minerals (inorganic)
carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins, (organic)
↑ Energy w/ exercise = higher Energy needs
Energy needs of average sized teen/day 2200 for females/2800 for males
42
Concept Map
Section 38-1
Nutrients
include
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
include
are made of
are made using
include
include
Simple
Complex
such as
such as
Sugars
Starches
Amino
acids
Fatty Acids
Calcium
Glycerol
Fat-soluble
Watersoluble
Go to
Section:
H2O: Most important b/c every cell needs H2O to carry on processes & Rxs
Makes up most of blood, lymph & body fluids
Sweat (mostly H2O) evaporates & cools body  maintains B.T & homeostasis
Lost in urine & breath
1L/day req’d to prevent dehydration  affects body systems
Carbs: Simple (mono/disaccharides & complex (polysaccharides, starch & glycogen)
C-H-O
= Main source of Energy
1 :2: 1
Broken ↓ by digestive system  carried thru blood to cells
Glycogen  stored starch in liver & skeletal muscle
Cellulose/Fiber: In whole grains, fruits, veg’s
Can’t be broken ↓
Bulk keeps moving food thru digestive tract 
Fats/Lipids: (2 or 3 fatty acids + glycerol)
C-H-O
“essential” fatty acids req’d for  C.M’s, myelin sheaths (axon), hormones
1 : 2 : few
Help body absorb fat soluble vitamins
Extra calories stored as fat
Protects & insulates
Saturated: (solid at RT, meats) no C=H in (f.a’s)
Unsaturated: 1 C=H (in f.a’s)
Polyunsaturated: (liquid at RT plants) 2+ C=H (in f.a’s)
Max 30% calories from fat w/ ≤ 10% saturated
↑ (sat) fat intake  ↑ BP, heart disease, obesity, diabetes, etc
Iron
43
Proteins: Polymers of aa’s (8 essential (meat, fish, eggs,), 12 body makes)
C-H-O-N
Vegetarians must eat combo of beans & rice
Growth, Development & Repair
Regulatory & Transport fxs
Ex. Hormone Insulin  protein that regulates BS
Hgb  protein in RBC’s carries O2
Vitamins: Organic, help regulate body processes & work w/ enzymes
Most obtained from food
Bacteria in digestive tract synthesize Vit K
Skin exposed to light synthesizes Vit D
Vitamin deficiency  disease
Fat soluble: A,D, E, K can be stored in fatty tissues  in XS can be toxic
H2O soluble: C, B can’t be stored (must have daily)
Minerals: Inorganic Ex. Ca,P  in bones & teeth
Fe  needed to make Hgb
Ca, Na, K  nerve & muscle fx, etc
Ca, K  blood clotting
Not metabolized  lost in sweat, urine, waste
Nutrition & Balanced Diet (Research Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies)
Food Guide Pyramid: Classifies foods into 6 groups
Indicates # of serving from each group
Food Label: Provides nutritional info w/ Daily Values, calories
44
Figure 38–8 Food Guide Pyramid
Section 38-1
Fats, Oils, and Sweets (use sparingly)
Soft drinks, candy, ice cream, mayonnaise, and
other foods in this group have relatively few
valuable nutrients.
Milk, Yogurt, and Cheese Group
(2-3 Servings)
Milk and other dairy products are rich in
proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and
minerals.
Vegetable Group
(3-5 servings)
Vegetables are a low-fat
source of carbohydrates,
fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs,
and Nut Group
(2-3 servings)
These foods are high in protein.
They also supply vitamins and minerals.
Fruit Group
(2-4 servings)
Fruits are good sources of
carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins
and water.
Fats
Sugars
Bread, Cereal, Rice
and Pasta Group
(6-11 servings)
The foods at the base of the
pyramid are rich in complex
carbohydrates and also
provide proteins, fiber,
vitamins, and some
minerals.
Go to
Section:
The Process of Digestion
Digestive System: Alimentary Canal/GI tract  1-way tube that passes thru body
Open at both ends
Includes: mouth, pharynx (digestive & respiratory),
esophagus, stomach, sm intestine, lg intestine/colon
Accessory organs: food does not pass thru
Salivary glands, Pancreas, Liver (+ secretions)
Fx: convert foods into simple molecules for  absorbed  used by
body cells
Mechanical Digestion: Specialized teeth  grind & chew
Stomach sm muscles churning
Peristalsis  sm muscles pushing food thru tube
Chemical Digestion: enzymes break down food sm molecules absorption into blood
45
Figure 38–10 The Digestive System
Section 38-2
Mouth
Pharynx
Salivary glands
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
(behind liver)
Stomach
Pancreas (behind
stomach)
Large intestine
Small intestine
Rectum
Go to
Section:
46
The Mouth
Teeth: Mechanical
Specialized S&F (cutting, grinding, tearing, crushing)
↑ SA by ↓ particle size for ↑ enzyme fx  efficient
Protected by enamel
Saliva: Secreted by (3) salivary glands (NS control Ex. smell/thought- sour patch kids)
 moistens food  ease passage
Contains amylase  Begins chemical digestion of starches  sugars
Lysozymefights infection by digesting CW of many bacteria (on food)
The Esophagus: Swallowing actions of tongue & throat push bolus ↓
Epiglottis closes off trachea  prevents food block of airways
Food passes from throat  Esophagus
Sm muscle tube (throat – stomach)
Peristalsis- sm muscle wavelike contraction (lg & slow) propel
food ↓ into stomach
Cardiac Sphincter: sm muscle ring between esophagus & stomach
Prevents contents going stomach  esophagus
Heatrburn: painful/burning from backflow of acid from stomach
Stomach: muscular sac
Continues mechanical digestion
Alternating contractions of 3 sm muscle layers  churns food  chyme
Chemical digestion:
Glands in stomach lining secrete:
Mucus: lubricates/protects stomach walls
HCl ↓ pH  activates enzyme pepsin
(works best in acidic env)
HCl & Pepsin  protein digestion  pp
Acid inactivates amylase  carb digestion stops until
sm intestine
Pyloric Valve: between stomach & sm intestine opens
Chyme passes  sm intestine
Small Intestine: Most digestion & absorption of nutrients
Duodenum (secretions from duodenum, pancreas, bile duct & liver
enter ↑ chemical digestion)
Jejunum
Ileum
47
Accessory Structures of Digestion: (food DOES NOT pass thru)
Pancreas: behind stomach
3 fxs: Produce hormones that regulate BS levels
Produces enzymes that break ↓ carbs, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
Produces Na HCO3 base  neutralizes stomach acid
so enzymes effective (sensitive to pH)
enzymes proteins  can denature
protects lining of sm intestine
Figure 38–13 The Liver and the Pancreas
Section 38-2
Liver
Bile duct
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Pancreatic duct
Duodenum
To rest of small intestine
Go to
Section:
Liver: above & left of stomach
Produces bile (w/ salts & lipids) stored in gal bladder under liver
 emulsifies fats for enzymes to work on smaller fat molecules
Absorption in Small Intestine
Duodenum short vs Jejunum & Ileum ~6m  most absorption
Vili: Folded surfaces of sm intestine (fingerlinke projections)
Microvilli: off vili
↑ SA  absorption of nutrients
Peristalsis: moves chyme thru sm intestine
Most carb & protein digestion absorbed into capillaries in vili
Undigested fat & fatty acids absorbed into lymph vessels
H2O, cellulose & other un-digestible materials remain  lg intestine
Appendix: Vestigial organ in humans  inflamed  appendicitis  removed
Other mammals use it to store cellulose & materials enzymes can’t
break ↓
48
Figure 38–14 The Small Intestine
Section 38-2
Small Intestine
Villus
Circular folds
Epithelial cells
Villi
Capillaries
Lacteal
Vein
Artery
Go to
Section:
Large Intestine (colon): shorter but wider diameter than sm intestine
Ascending
Chyme from sm intestine  ileocecal valve  lg intestine
Transverse
Descending
Primary Function  remove H2O from remaining undigested material
Sigmoid
Bacteria in colon produce Vit K
Antibiotics can destroy (normal) bacteria  Vit K deficiency
Fecal material passes thru colon  rectum  anus
Digestive System Disorders
Ulcers: whole in stomach
from ↑ acid
Heliobacter pylori  peptic ulcers
Diarrhea (↓H2O absorption) & nutrient absorption b/c material moving thru too fast!
Constipation (↑ H2O absorption)
38 Excretory Systems
49
Excretory Organs: Rid metabolic wastes
xs salts & CO2
urea (toxic cmpd produced when aa’s used for energy
Excretion: process of eliminating wastes
Skin: excretes xs H2O, salts, urea, UA in form of sweat
Lungs: excrete CO2 (produced from CR)
Liver: takes up xs aa’s  useful cmpds & produce N-wastes
But then converts them to urea
Urea removed by Kidneys
Fx’s of Excretory System: Help maintain homeostasis & acid base balance
Remove waster products from blood
Maintain blood pH
Regulate H2O content of blood ( so blood volume)
Kidneys: Main excretory organs
Located on either side of spinal column/lower back
Ureter: (tube leaves each kidney & carries urine  bladder)
Dirty / O2 Blood: enters thru renal artery
Clean / DeO2 blood exits thru renal vein
Kidney Structure:
50
Renal Medulla (inner)
Renal Cortex (outer)
Nephrons: Functional units of kidney (>1million/kidney)
In renal cortex except
Loops of Henle (descend into medulla)
Nephron Structure: Dirty / O2 blood enters nephron thru arteriole (sm)
Wastes filtered out  urine  collecting duct  ureter  bladder (stored) urethra
Clean / DeO2 blood exits nephron thru venule (lg)
Figure 38–17 Structure of the Kidneys
Section 38-3
Kidney
Nephron
Bowman’s
capsule
Cortex
Capillaries
Glomerulus
Medulla
Renal
artery
Renal vein
Ureter
Collecting
duct
Vein
To the bladder
Artery
Loop of Henle
Go to
Section:
Blood Purification / Urine Formation
To the ureter
51
Filtration of blood in Glomerulus:sm network of capillaries
Encased in Bowman’s Capsule permeable to filtrate
Blood enters under pressure  most materials filtered out  filtrate
Filtrate contains H2O, urea, glucose, salts, aa’s, vit’s
Cells (RBC’s, WBC’s, plts & plasma proteins) too big to pass thru capillaries
remain in blood
All blood filtered every 45 minutes but most filtrate reabsorbed
Reasborption: liquid/materials in filtrate that are taken back into capillaries
99% of H2O (osmosis) follows, aa’s, fats, glucose (AT)
In Tubule system PCT, Loop of Henle, DCT
Concentrated remains = Urine  collecting duct
Bladder stores urine  urethra/void
Secretion: opposite of reabsorption
xs materials in peritubular capillaries  tubules  urine
Drugs & Urinary System: Drugs usually remain in filtrate  effects wear off
Drugs (legal/illegal) concentrated in urine  testing
The Nephron
Section 38-3
Reabsorption
Filtration
Most filtration occurs in the
glomerulus. Blood pressure forces
water, salt, glucose, amino acids,
and urea into Bowman’s capsule.
Proteins and blood cells are too
large to cross the membrane; they
remain in the blood. The fluid that
enters the renal tubules is called
the filtrate.
As the filtrate flows through the
renal tubule, most of the water
and nutrients are reabsorbed into
the blood. The concentrated fluid
that remains is called urine.
Go to
Section:
Control of Kidney Fx  Maintained by blood composition
Regulatory Hormones released
in response to blood composition
52
If xs H2O, salts, etc  less reabsorbed in tubules  urine
If deficient  more reabsorbed in tubules  blood
Maintains: Proper blood composition
Acid Base balance / pH
Kidney Dialysis: Blood removed from line
Pumped thru tubes that act as nephron (dialysis tubing)
Wastes: urea, xs salts, etc diffuse out of blood
Purified blood returned to body