Download File - Designing powerful Lessons!

EDTC 600
Theories, Strategies, & Technology…Oh My MATRIX
Learning Topic 4, Activity 3
Your Name: Julie Kalvels
Date: 7-28-12
Required
Elements
Information Presented
Behaviorism
Brief History
(minimum 5
required)
1. Behaviorism had its
earliest start with the work
of a Russian physiologist
named Ivan Pavlov.
Pavlov's research on the
digestive systems of dogs
led to his discovery of the
classical conditioning
process, which
demonstrated that
behaviors could be learned
via conditioned
associations. Pavlov
demonstrated that this
learning process could be
used to make an
association between and
environmental stimulus
and a naturally occurring
stimulus.
2. An American
psychologist named John
B. Watson soon became
one of the strongest
advocates of behaviorism.
He said: “Behaviorism
holds that the subject
matter of human
psychology is the behavior
of the human being.
Behaviorism claims that
consciousness is neither a
definite nor a usable
concept. The behaviorist,
who has been trained
always as an
experimentalist, holds,
further, that belief in the
existence of consciousness
goes back to the ancient
days of superstition and
magic."
3. The term behaviorism
refers to the school of
psychology founded by
Cognitivism
1. Started by the Gestalt
psychologists, Wertheimer,
Kohler, Koffka, and Lewin,
known as 'Gestaltists"
“believed learning is the
result from good perception,
which enable an individual to
form correct concepts in
[his/her] mind.”
2. As cognitive
psychologists, Piaget and
Vygotsky are also credited in
this theory because they
emphasized the individual’s
active construction of
understanding and
underscore the importance of
examining developmental
changes in children’s
thinking.
3. 1960s: Information
Processing Theory and
Multi-Store Models of
Memory emerge as new areas
in Cognitive Learning. The
premise here is that the study
of memory, whether a
machine or a human, happens
is a sequence. The Advanced
Organizers are also
introduced in 1968 by Ausbel
as a way to help students link
their ideas to new materials
or concepts.
4. *1970s: R.C. Anderson
develops the schema theory;
cognitivism embraces this
theory in an attempt to
explain how information is
best encoded in long-term
memory. By 1978, Bruner
proposes learning via insight
and includes motivation as a
key factor in learning.
5. *1980- Current: Educators
Constructivism
1. The concept of constructivism has
roots in classical antiquity, going
back to Socrates's dialogues with his
followers, in which he asked directed
questions that led his students to
realize for themselves the
weaknesses in their thinking. The
Socratic dialogue is still an important
tool in the way constructivist
educators assess their students'
learning and plan new learning
experiences.
2. In this century, Jean Piaget and
John Dewey developed theories of
childhood development and
education, what we now call
Progressive Education, which led to
the evolution of constructivism.
Piaget contributed the idea of
transformation in learning and
development. Dewey contributed the
idea that schools had to bring real
world problems into the school
curriculum.
3. Among the educators,
philosophers, psychologists, and
sociologists who have added new
perspectives to constructivist
learning theory and practice are Lev
Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and David
Ausubel. Vygotsky contributed the
idea that learning and development
were integrally tied to
communicative interactions with
others
4. Vygotsky and Piaget's theories are
often contrasted to each other in
terms of individual cognitive
constructivism (Piaget) and social
constructivism (Vygotsky). Some
researchers have tried to develop a
synthesis of these approaches, though
some, such as Michael Cole and
James Wertsch, argue that the
individual versus social orientation
Brief
Description
(for easy
recall)
John B. Watson based on
the belief that behaviors
can be measured, trained,
and changed. Behaviorism
was established with the
publication of Watson's
classic paper Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views It
(1913).
4. The impact of
behaviorism was
enormous, and this school
of thought continued to
dominate for the next 50
years. Psychologist B.F.
Skinner furthered the
behaviorist perspective
with his concept of operant
conditioning, which
demonstrated the effect of
punishment and
reinforcement on behavior.
5. While behaviorism
eventually lost its hold on
psychology, the basic
principles of behavioral
psychology are still widely
in use today. Therapeutic
techniques such as
behavior analysis,
behavioral modification
and token economies are
often utilized to help
children learn new skills
and overcome maladaptive
behaviors, while
conditioning is used in
many situations ranging
from parenting to
education.
Behaviorism is a theory of
learning based upon the
idea that all behaviors are
acquired through
conditioning. Conditioning
occurs through interaction
with the environment.
Behaviorists believe that
our responses to
environmental stimuli
shapes our behaviors.
Behavior can be studied in
a systematic and
observable manner with no
consideration of internal
incorporate cognitive
principles to lessons:
insightful learning,
meaningful learning,
scaffolding, mnemonic
devices, mind-mapping,
advanced organizers, and
expository approach.
debate is over-emphasized. To them,
the real difference rests on the
contrast between the roles of cultural
artifacts. For Vygotsky, such artifacts
play a central role, but they do not
appear in Piaget's theories.
5. Modern educators who have
studied, written about, and practiced
constructivist approaches to
education include John D. Bransford,
Ernst von Glasersfeld, Eleanor
Duckworth, George Forman, Roger
Schank, Jacqueline Grennon Brooks
and Martin G. Brooks.
Learning happens as a purely
mental or neurological
process. Cognitive theories of
learning are concerned with
processes which occur inside
the brain and nervous system
as a person learns. They
share the perspective that
people actively process
information and learning
takes place through the
efforts of the learner. Internal
mental processes include
inputting, organizing, storing,
retrieving, and finding
relationships between
It says that people construct their
own understanding and knowledge of
the world, through experiencing
things and reflecting on those
experiences.
mental states.
Key Principles
(minimum 5
required)
1. Behaviorism is a theory
of animal and human
learning that only focuses
on objectively observable
behaviors and discounts
mental activities. Behavior
theorists define learning as
nothing more than the
acquisition of new
behavior.
2. Experiments by
behaviorists identify
conditioning as a universal
learning process. There are
two different types of
conditioning, classic and
operant, each yielding a
different behavioral
pattern.
3. Classic conditioning
occurs when a natural
reflex responds to a
stimulus. The most popular
example is Pavlov's
observation that dogs
salivate when they eat or
even see food. Essentially,
animals and people are
biologically "wired" so that
a certain stimulus will
produce a specific
response.
4. Behavioral or operant
conditioning occurs when a
response to a stimulus is
reinforced. Basically,
operant conditioning is a
simple feedback system: If
a reward or reinforcement
follows the response to a
stimulus, then the response
becomes more probable in
the future. For example,
leading behaviorist B.F.
Skinner used reinforcement
techniques to teach pigeons
to dance and bowl a ball in
a mini-alley
5. Simple contracts can be
effective in helping
children focus on behavior
change. The relevant
information. New
information is linked to old
knowledge, schema, and
scripts.
1. If information is to be
learned, it must first be
recognized as important.
2. During learning, learners
act on information in ways
that make it more
meaningful.
3. Learners store information
in long-term memory in an
organized fashion related to
their existing understanding
of the world.
4. Learners continually check
understanding, which results
in refinement and revision of
what is retained.
5. Transfer of learning to new
contexts is not automatic, but
results from exposure to
multiple applications.
6. Learning is facilitated
when learners are aware of
their learning strategies and
monitor their use.
1. Pose problems of emerging
relevance to students.
2. Structure learning around primary
concepts.
3. Seek and value students' points of
view.
4. Adapt instruction to address
student suppositions.
5. Assess student learning in the
context of teaching.
Theorists &
Contributions
(minimum 3
required)
behavior should be
identified, and the child
and counselor should
decide the terms of the
contract. Behavioral
contracts can be used in
school as well as at home.
It is helpful if teachers and
parents work together with
the student to ensure that
the contract is being
fulfilled.
1. Pavlov was studying the
digestive process and the
interaction of salivation
and stomach function when
he realized that reflexes in
the autonomic nervous
system closely linked these
phenomena. To determine
whether external stimuli
had an affect on this
process, Pavlov rang a bell
when he gave food to the
experimental dogs. He
noticed that the dogs
salivated shortly before
they were given food. He
discovered that when the
bell was rung at repeated
feedings, the sound of the
bell alone (a conditioned
stimulus) would cause the
dogs to salivate (a
conditioned response).
Pavlov also found that the
conditioned reflex was
repressed if the stimulus
proved "wrong" too
frequently; if the bell rang
and no food appeared, the
dog eventually ceased to
salivate at the sound of the
bell.
2. Watson believed that
human behavior resulted
from specific stimuli that
elicited certain responses.
Watson's basic premise
was that conclusions about
human development should
be based on observation of
overt behavior rather than
speculation about
subconscious motives or
latent cognitive processes.
1. Wertheimer, Kohler,
Koffka, and Lewin “believed
learning is the result from
good perception, which
enable an individual to form
correct concepts in [his/her]
mind.”
2. Piaget and Vygotshky they emphasized the
individual’s active
construction of understanding
and underscore the
importance of examining
developmental changes in
children’s thinking.
3. Anderson develops the
schema theory; cognitivism
embraces this theory in an
attempt to explain how
information is best encoded
in long-term memory.
1. Piaget believed that humans learn
through the construction of one
logical structure after another. He
also concluded that the logic of
children and their modes of thinking
are initially entirely different from
those of adults. The implications of
this theory and how he applied them
have shaped the foundation for
constructivist education.
2. Dewey called for education to be
grounded in real experience. He
wrote, "If you have doubts about how
learning happens, engage in
sustained inquiry: study, ponder,
consider alternative possibilities and
arrive at your belief grounded in
evidence." Inquiry is a key part of
constructivist learning.
3. Vygotsky introduced the social
aspect of learning into
constructivism. He defined the "zone
of proximal learning," according to
which students solve problems
beyond their actual developmental
level (but within their level of
potential development) under adult
guidance or in collaboration with
more capable peers.
4. Bruner initiated curriculum
change based on the notion that
learning is an active, social process
in which students construct new
ideas or concepts based on their
current knowledge.
5. Seymour Papert's groundbreaking
work in using computers to teach
children has led to the widespread
use of computer and information
technology in constructivist
environments.
(Shaffer, 2000). Watson's
view of learning was based
in part on the studies of
Ivan Pavlov
3. Expanding on Watson's
basic stimulus-response
model, Skinner developed
a more comprehensive
view of conditioning,
known as operant
conditioning. His model
was based on the premise
that satisfying responses
are conditioned, while
unsatisfying ones are not.
Operant conditioning is the
rewarding of part of a
desired behavior or a
random act that approaches
it. Skinner remarked that
"the things we call pleasant
have an energizing or
strengthening effect on our
behavior" (Skinner, 1972,
p. 74). Through Skinner's
research on animals, he
concluded that both
animals and humans would
repeat acts that led to
favorable outcomes, and
suppress those that
produced unfavorable
results (Shaffer, 2000). If a
rat presses a bar and
receives a food pellet, he
will be likely to press it
again. Skinner defined the
bar-pressing response as
operant, and the food pellet
as a reinforcer. Punishers,
on the other hand, are
consequences that suppress
a response and decrease the
likelihood that it will occur
in the future. If the rat had
been shocked every time it
pressed the bar that
behavior would cease.
Skinner believed the habits
that each of us develops
result from our unique
operant learning
experiences (Shaffer,
2000).
Goals for
1. Teacher designs the
1. Communicate or transfer
1. To promote activities that are
Instruction
(5-7 required)
learning environment.
2.Teacher shapes child’s
behavior by positive/
negative reinforcement
3. Teacher presents the
information and then
students demonstrate that
they understand the
material. Students are
assessed primarily through
tests.
4. The amount of learning
that can be generalized
between a familiar
situation and an unfamiliar
one is determined by the
number of elements that
the two situations have in
common. So learning
should be as life-like as
possible
5. The emphasis is on the
active responding of the
learner. The learner must
be engaged in the behavior
in order to learn and to
validate that learning has
occurred.
knowledge in the most
efficient, effective manner
(mind-independent, can be
mapped onto learners)
2. Focus of instruction is to
create learning or change by
encouraging the learner to
use appropriate learning
strategies
3. Learning results when
information is stored in
memory in an organized,
meaningful way.
4. Teachers are responsible
for assisting learners in
organizing information in an
optimal way so that it can be
easily used.
5. Teachers should be
concerned with the process of
learning rather than the end
product.
6. Children should be
encouraged to learn from
each other. It is important for
teachers to provide multiple
opportunities for small group
activities.
7. Teachers should act as
guides to children's learning
processes and that the
curriculum should be adapted
to individual needs and
developmental levels.
tailored to the individual learner, as
opposed to standardized for the
whole group
2. To promote activities that focus
on learning for understanding, as
opposed to learning for memory
3. To promote activities that
promote the active use of rich
problem-solving strategies
4. To promote activities that
promote the ability not only to solve
problems but to reflect on the thought
processes used to solve those
problems (metacognitive skills)
5. To promote activities that are
authentic, that is, which allow
learners to do things that professional
practitioners would actually do.
Keywords to
describe the
learning process
(minimum of 5)
1. Consequences occur
after the "target" behavior
occurs, when either
positive or negative
reinforcement may be
given.
2. Behaviorism stresses the
importance of having a
particular form of behavior
reinforced by someone,
other than the student, to
shape or control what is
learned.
3. Frequent, positive
reinforcement and rewards
accelerate learning. In
general, the behaviorist
theory emphasizes positive
reinforcement rather than
no reinforcement or
punishment.
1. An active process that
occurs within the learner and
which can be influenced by
the learner
2. A change of knowledge
state
3. The result of evaluating
past experiences with present
experiences
4. The Interlacing of
Behavioral, Personal and
Environmental factors
determines the level of
learning.
5. A responsibility to teach
both content and process
1. Learning is an active process in
which the learner uses sensory input
and constructs meaning out of it:
Learners need to do something,
because learning involves the
learners engaging with the world.
2. The crucial action of constructing
meaning is mental: it happens in the
mind. We need to provide activities
which engage the mind as well as the
hands.
3. It takes time to learn: learning is
not instantaneous. For significant
learning we need to revisit ideas,
ponder them try them out, play with
them and use them. This cannot
happen in 5-10 minutes.
4. Learning is a social activity: our
learning is intimately associated with
our connection with other human
beings, our teachers, our peers, our
5. Three principles for
teaching new and complex
behaviors are defined by
behaviorists: shaping,
chaining, and fading.
1. Present the information
to be learned in small
behaviorally defined steps
2. Allow pupils to learn at
their own pace. Building
on these he proposed an
alternative teaching
technique called
programmed
learning/instruction and
also a teaching machine
that could present
programmed material.
3. Give rapid feedback to
pupils regarding the
accuracy of their learning
(learning being indicated
by overt pupil responses
4. Multiple
opportunities/trials (Drill
and practice)
5. The teacher analyzes the
situation and sets a goal.
Individual tasks are broken
down and learning
objectives are developed.
Evaluation consists of
determining whether the
criterion for the objectives
has been met. In this
approach the designer
decides what is important
for the learner to know and
attempts to transfer that
knowledge to the learner.
The learning package is
somewhat of a closed
system, since although it
may allow for some
branching and remediation,
the learner is still confined
to the teachers “world”.
Teacher will model and
give examples how to use a
Venn diagram to show
similarities and
1. Accretion: information is
remembered that was
instantiated within a schema
as a result of text
comprehension or
understanding of some
events.
2. Tuning: Tuning occurs
when existing schemata
evolve to become more
consistent with experience.
3. Reconstructing: It involves
the creation of entirely new
schemata which replace or
incorporate old ones.
4. Assimilation: it occurs
when a child perceives new
objects or events in terms of
existing schemes or
operations. This is a process
of fitting new information
into existing cognitive
structures.
5. Accommodation: it has
occurred when existing
schemes or operations must
be modified to account for a
new experience.
6. Equilibration: it is the
master developmental
process, encompassing both
assimilation and
accommodation.
7. Speech and other symbols
are first mastered as a form
of communication and
eventually structure and
manage a child’s thinking.
Venn Diagram-Examine
Relationships-Basic
Cognitive Operation
Instructi
onal
strategie
s: How
Marzan
o’s 9
Instructi
onal
Strategi
es are
best be
applied
for each
theory.
Give a
minimu
m of 1
example
for each
theory.
How Learning
Takes Place
at least 5
examples
Similarities
&
Differences
family. Conversations, interaction
with others and collaborations are an
integral aspect of learning.
5. Learning is contextual: we do not
learn isolated facts and theories in
some abstract ethereal land of the
mind separate from rest of our lives.
We learn in relationship to what else
we know, what we believe, our
prejudices and our fears.
1. Children learn more, and enjoy
learning more when they are actively
involved, rather than passive
listeners.
2. Education works best when it
concentrates on thinking and
understanding, rather than on rote
memorization. Constructivism
concentrates on learning how to think
and understand.
3. Constructivist learning is
transferable. In constructivist
classrooms, students create
organizing principles that they can
take with them to other learning
settings.
4. Constructivism gives students
ownership of what they learn, since
learning is based on students'
questions and explorations, and often
the students have a hand in designing
the assessments as well. Engaging
the creative instincts develops
students' abilities to express
knowledge through a variety of ways.
The students are also more likely to
retain and transfer the new
knowledge to real life.
5. By grounding learning activities
in an authentic, real-world context,
constructivism stimulates and
engages students. Students in
constructivist classrooms learn to
question things and to apply their
natural curiosity to the world.
Children learn more when they are
actively involved. With a partner
read two different versions of the
Summarizi
ng & Notetaking
Reinforcin
g effort &
Providing
recognition
Homework
& Practice
Nonlinguist
ic
representati
ons
differences. Each child
will complete a Venn
Diagram as instructed by
the teacher.
Students can take notes
that the teacher gives them
using a graphic organizer.
Use high lighters.
If feedback is given,
whether positive or
negative, it correlates to
Behaviorism. Teacher sets
expectations, rewards and
consequences.
Homework is given and
graded. Answers are right
or wrong. Teacher dictates
what homework will be
and what it should look
like.
Teacher gives the students
a graphic organizer and
asks the students to
complete it.
Summarize main idea and
details-Summarizing
ideas/remember details-Basic
Cognitive Operation. Two
Column Notes-Clarifies
Ideas-Basic Cognitive
Operations
Printable Certificates for
Achievement-Decision
making is required. Use of
decision making tools.
Homework-Thinking
effectively when aloneMotivate self to increase
productivity and success.
Daily Review QuestionsMeta-cognition-accessing
current knowledge relative to
new ideas and tasks.
Interpret information from
maps, charts and graphsProblem SolvingEstablishing Criteria, judging
credibility of sources.
The teacher assigns groups
for children to work in.
Children should be
encouraged to learn from
each other. It is important for
teachers to provide multiple
opportunities for small group
activities.
Teacher sets classroom
objectives and goals.
Teacher creates contracts
for students.
*Individual goal setting.Decision Making-Select from
competing alternatives that
may or may not be obvious.
*Use of a Rubric-Thinking
Process-Form literal
elaborations and concepts
through multiple operations.
Student Work GroupsThinking effectively in
groups-Use talents
interactively while listening
analytically.
Historical InvestigationsCreativity and InnovationUse risk taking, curiosity and
forecasting to create new
Cooperativ
e Learning
Setting
Objectives
&
Providing
feedback
Generating
& testing
hypotheses
three little pigs. Use a Venn diagram
to describe the similarities and
differences of the two stories.
Teachers tell the students
what to do and they will do
it. Teacher sets guidelines
to follow.
Learning is transferable. Create a
visual map sequencing the key events
in the story you are reading.
Compare your map with a friends
map. What do you like about theirs?
After the students create their visual
map they can share it with the class.
This will stimulate and engage
students to further discuss their
learning and it gives time for the
teacher to provide recognition.
We need to provide activities which
engage the mind as well as the hands.
Students can pretend to interview a
famous person. Who would it be?
What questions would you ask?
How do you think they would answer
your question?
Students can construct additional
knowledge by making posters,
cartoons, timelines, models, charts,
graphs, board games, act in out,
produce a skit, have a debate or
multimedia presentations.
Learning is a social activity
(collaborative learning). Students
can create a poster together that
depicts summer, winter, fall and
spring. After, students should be
allowed to share and explain their
thinking process to the class.
Constructivism gives students
ownership of what they learn, since
learning is based on students'
questions and explorations. Students
can create their own learning goal
and make a rubric to document how
the learning will take place.
Provide hands-on experimenting that
will allow students to test their initial
beliefs. For example: What do
magnets stick to? Give children
Questions,
Cues, &
Advance
organizers
Teacher asks questions and
students answer. Teacher
directs questioning.
thoughts and products.
*Rigorous QuestionsProblem solving-resolving
perplexing situations.
*Thinking Process-Form
connections through
inference, interpretations and
comparisons.
Technology
Integration
(minimum of 5)
1. Clicker software: very
much drill-and-practice controlled by the teacher
rather than the learner.
2. Teacher uses power
point to give a lesson.
3. Kids can use Inspiration
to show work, teacher
needs to give immediate
feedback.
4. Using the program
Class Dojo you can
reinforce effort with
positive and negative
immediate responses.
5. Children can play
games with instant
feedback.
1. Tools such as Microsoft
Word and Inspiration can
provide newly developed
organizers that trigger
student’s higher-level
thinking skills.
2. Spreadsheet software can
help prepare rubrics. Rubrics
are an essential component of
good instruction.
3. Organizing and
brainstorming software can
display essential questions,
activate background
knowledge, organize new
information, and help
students make connections
between concepts. This
application makes the
thinking process visual!
4. Multimedia tools,
especially image and video
applications, provide
opportunities for students to
experience abstract concepts.
Not every student has prior
knowledge related to the
concepts that we teach.
Displaying images and
showing video segments help
our students develop
associations and connections
with the content.
5. Word processing
applications, such as
Microsoft Word, can help
students summarize or
eliminate extra information.
Key Resources
(links) for each
theory.
Minimum of 3
resources
1.http://www.personal.psu.
edu/wxh139/bahavior.htm
1. http://www.lifecirclesinc.com/Learningtheories/ori
entations.html
2.http://teachinglearningres
ources.pbworks.com/w/pag
e/19919565/Learning%20T
heories
2.http://academic.cuesta.edu/
acasupp/as/264.htm3.
magnets and let them explore.
*Encourage student critical thinking
and inquiry by asking them
thoughtful, open-ended questions,
and encourage them to ask questions
to each other. *Search out students'
understanding and prior experiences
about a concept before teaching it to
them.
1. Students and teachers can extend
their dialogue beyond the physical
and time constraints of the classroom
using e-mail, blogs and live chats.
2. You can use software applications
such as inspiration, PowerPoint and
Storybird to tap into students'
multiple intelligences, and enabled
those with aptitude in visual learning,
for example, to demonstrate
knowledge creation more effectively.
3. High-quality, current material on
major events is immediately
available using the internet and in
particular Google Currents. A
landing on Mars, a comet hitting
Jupiter, a spacewalk, photographs
and statistics of major storms.
Students can research, classify, and
store multimedia information from
these events and more.
4. Promote student inquiry by
creating a Prezi presentation that asks
thoughtful, open-ended questions and
encourage students to ask questions
to each other too.
5. Students can work together to
create a graphic web using
Webspiration and share it with their
class.
1.http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/c
oncept2class/constructivism/index.ht
ml
2. http://www.learningtheories.com/constructivism.html
3.http://education.stateuniversity.com
3.http://projects.coe.uga.ed
u/epltt/index.php?title=Beh
aviorism
Other information
deemed to be
important
*Strengths of Behaviorism:
Behaviorism is based upon
observable behaviors, so it
is easier to quantify and
collect data and
information when
conducting research.
Effective therapeutic
techniques such as
intensive behavioral
intervention, behavior
analysis, token economies
and discrete trial training
are all rooted in
behaviorism. These
approaches are often very
useful in changing
maladaptive or harmful
behaviors in both children
and adults.
*Criticisms of
Behaviorism:
Many critics argue that
behaviorism is a onedimensional approach to
understanding human
behavior and that
behavioral theories do not
account for free will and
internal influences such as
moods, thoughts and
feelings.
Behaviorism does not
account for other types of
learning, especially
learning that occurs
without the use of
reinforcement and
punishment.
3.http://suite101.com/article/s
ocial-cognitive-theory-in-ak8-classroom-a186111
*An advantage is that it is a
learner oriented learning.
Learning outcomes in
addition to goals achievement
emphasize learner
satisfaction, self-worth,
creativity, and social values.
*A disadvantage of the
cognitive learning theory is
that it is limited to what the
teacher knows. It is a teacher
based learning.
/pages/2174/LearningTheoryCONSTRUCTIVISTAPPROACH.html
*Benefits of using constructivism in
the classroom: encourages higher
level thinking, student centered,
actively engages learners, offers
differentiated instruction, higher
retention of learned material,
collaboration and cooperation are
used and encourages diversity of
thought.
*Criticisms of using constructivism
in the classroom: time consuming,
expensive, too subjective, mixes too
many theories and ideas, difficult to
develop authentic tasks and
unpredictable outcomes.