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Notes towards Biodiversity Chapter 7
Introductory/Title slide (1)
Hello. This is Gwen Raitt. I will be presenting this chapter on areas of high biodiversity
under threat.
The picture shows a portion of the rainforest in the region of the Amazon.
Retaining biodiversity
In previous chapters, the loss of biodiversity was considered. Logically, in view of this
loss, steps must be taken to preserve biodiversity. So how does one preserve the
maximum amount of biodiversity?
Here four factors are highlighted for consideration in developing conservation strategies
and priorities (for a more comprehensive look at biodiversity conservation, see the
Conservation Biology Course chapters 6, 9—13). Firstly, consider the distribution of
biodiversity (Myers 1988, 1990, Myers et al. 2000) which is affected by the scale at
which it is considered and the taxa that are studied (Prendergast et al. 1993a, Tylianakis
2006). Additionally, apparent distribution patterns are affected by the quality of the data
used in the study (for many taxa the distribution data are not available or limited so
assumptions are made based on the distribution of known taxa) (Reid 1998). Data quality
is in turn affected by the distribution of recorders and the spread of recorder effort
(Prendergast et al. 1993b). Secondly, the immediacy of the threat of loss is regarded as a
guide to prioritising areas for conservation action (Myers 1988, 1990, Myers et al. 2000).
Thirdly, the representation of all species, habitats, ecosystems, etc. in protected areas
(which is a fundamental goal of conservation) forms a basis for conservation thinking
(Williams et al. 1996, Olson et al. 2001) and finally the cost of conservation action which
limits conservation action and makes prioritisation necessary (Myers 1988, 1990,
Williams et al. 1996).
In this chapter, the following concepts are mentioned: megadiverse (or megadiversity)
countries, ecoregions and hotspots. The chapter focuses on the biodiversity hotspot
concept.
Megadiverse countries
Megadiverse (or megadiversity) countries are defined by their high species richness and
high levels of endemism at species and higher taxonomic levels (Mittermeier 1988,
Williams et al. 2001). The World Conservation Monitoring Centre identified 17
megadiverse countries in 2000. Together, these countries contain more than 70% of the
global species diversity (Williams et al. 2001).
These countries reflect the uneven distribution of biodiversity over the globe. This
classification of megadiverse countries uses political boundaries to indicate priority
conservation areas. The approach is complementary to the hotspot approach (Myers
1990).
The countries in the numerical order on the map are: 1 Australia, 2 Brazil, 3 China, 4
Colombia, 5 Democratic Republic of the Congo, 6 Ecuador, 7 India, 8 Indonesia, 9
Madagascar, 10 Malaysia, 11 Mexico, 12 Peru, 13 Philippines, 14 South Africa, 15 Papua
new Guinea, 16 United States of America and 17 Venezuela (CI 2005).
Ecoregions
The term ‘ecoregion’ is used by Bailey and Omernik (in the context of land use planning)
and the United States branch of the World Wildlife Fund (US-WWF) (for conservation
planning) as part of biogeographic schemes (Wright et al. 1998, Olson et al. 2001, Jepson
& Whittaker 2002, Olson & Dinerstein 2002).
Bailey defined ecoregions as areas representing groups of ecosystems that function in a
similar way. Omernik defined ecoregions as areas that show similar mosaics of
ecosystems, environmental resources and human impacts (Wright et al. 1998).
The US-WWF’s terrestrial ecoregions were defined as “relatively large units of land
containing a distinct assemblage of natural communities and species, with boundaries that
approximate the original extent of natural communities prior to major land-use change”
(p. 933 Olson et al. 2001). Olson et al. (2001) indicate that 867 terrestrial ecoregions
have been delineated in the world. This definition of a terrestrial ecoregion was
generalised (now ecoregion not terrestrial ecoregion) in the papers concerning the
‘Global 200’ ecoregions to include water and expanded by adding “ecological dynamics,
and environmental conditions” so that the US-WWF’s ‘ecoregion’ is defined as “a
relatively large unit of land or water containing a characteristic set of natural
communities that share a large majority of their species, ecological dynamics, and
environmental conditions” (p. 200 Olson & Dinerstein 2002).
The ‘Global 200’ is a prioritisation scheme that evaluates the terrestrial, freshwater and
marine realms using ecoregions to identify conservation priorities. Where adjacent
ecoregions of the same type (terrestrial, freshwater or marine) were selected, they were
merged to form one ecoregion for the prioritisation scheme. The ‘Global 200’ identified
238 ecoregions as priority conservation areas (Olson & Dinerstein 2002).
Ecoregions (2)
As with all biogeographic schemes, no framework represents all taxa equally well; map
edges are sharp whereas reality involves a variety of ecotones and finally, most
ecoregions will contain habitats different to the assigned habitat (Olson et al. 2001). The
US-WWF base their terrestrial ecoregions on existing biogeographic schemes with
modifications based on expert opinion but no existing scheme is used consistently (Olson
et al. 2001, Jepson & Whittaker 2002). In the United States, US-WWF follow Omernik’s
scheme (Olson et al. 2001).
Wright et al. (1998) point out that Omernik’s scheme is not congruent with the vegetation
patterns. No vegetation type occupied more than 55% of any of Omernik’s ecoregions at
his finest scale. The congruence was least at the coarsest scale. Most vegetation types
occurred in several different ecoregions at low percentages of the individual ecoregion’s
area (Wright et al. 1998). Even allowing for the caveat that ecoregions will contain
atypical habitat, this is poor and brings into question the quality of the representation
provided by US-WWF’s ecoregions for North America. The use of different existing
biogeographic schemes in different places at the finest scale raises the question of the
repeatability of the methods used (Jepson & Whittaker 2002).
New schemes like the US-WWF’s ecoregions may weaken conservation efforts by taking
money that could be used for field conservation and implying that the science
conservation efforts were based on is somehow inferior (Jepson & Whittaker 2002).
From the literature (Olson & Dinerstein 1998, 2002, Olson et al. 2001, Jepson &
Whittaker 2002, Wikramanayake et al. 2002), US-WWF is hard selling ecoregions
which, in my opinion, makes the science involved suspect and leads me to suspect that
money (and possibly also status) is somehow involved.
Additional Notes
Extract from Wikipedia (2006A) ~ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/. “An ecotone is a
transition area between two adjacent ecological communities (ecosystems). It may appear
on the ground as a gradual blending of the two communities across a broad area, or it
may manifest itself as a sharp boundary line.
Changes in the physical environment may produce a sharp boundary, as in the example of
a shoreline or the interface between areas of forest and cleared land. Elsewhere, a more
gradually blended interface area will be found, where species from each community will
be found together as well as unique local species. Mountain ranges often create such
ecotones, due to the wide variety of climatic conditions experienced on their slopes. They
may also provide a boundary between species due to the obstructive nature of their
terrain; Mont Ventoux in France is a good example, marking the boundary between the
flora and fauna of northern and southern France.
Ecotones are particularly significant for mobile animals, as they can exploit more than
one set of habitats within a short distance. This can produce an edge effect along the
boundary line, with the area displaying a greater than usual diversity of species.
The word was coined from a combination of eco(logy) plus -tone, from the Greek tonos
or tension – in other words, a place where ecologies are in tension.”
Hotspots
The term ‘hotspot’ is used to define many different things (Wikipedia Contributors
2006a). In conservation biology, the term may refer to a geographical area in which any
or any combination of the following traits is unusually high: species richness, levels of
endemism, numbers of rare or threatened species, levels of taxonomically unusual species
or intensity of threat (Reid 1998, Myers et al. 2000). Species richness is most frequently
used to define hotspots (Reid 1998) – e.g. see Prendergast et al. (1993 a, b) and Williams
et al. (1996).
Reid (1998) suggests that the hotspot concept is best used at coarse scales (i.e. continental
or global scales). Balmford (1998) maintains that the idea is still useful at finer scales
because the priority areas for one taxon will include habitat types used by other taxa and
thus conserve other taxa to some degree (though not comprehensively). The degree to
which the selection of priority reserves for a single taxon will conserve other taxa is
dependant on the number of species in the chosen taxon – using a relatively species rich
taxon results in better coverage of other taxa than using a relatively species poor taxon
(Balmford 1998).
Biodiversity hotspots were originally defined by Dr. Norman Myers (Reid 1998) as areas
with unusually high species concentrations and high endemism levels which are
exceptionally threatened with destruction. On a global scale, 18 such areas were
identified using vascular plants as a surrogate for biodiversity. Vascular plants were
chosen because they are the best known of the taxa with high species numbers (having
reasonable certainty that most of the species have been identified – about 250 000 vs.
mammals and birds combined with only about 13 000 species identified) (Myers 1988,
1990).
This definition was later refined to areas with unusually high endemism (defined using
vascular plants as areas containing a minimum 0.5% (i.e. ~1500 spp.) of the earth’s plant
species (taken as 300 000 plant spp.) as endemics) that are experiencing extremely high
rates of habitat loss (Myers et al. 2000). Myers et al. (2000) revised the previous
biodiversity hotspots and added new biodiversity hotspots. Twenty-five biodiversity
hotspots were defined using the refined definition (Myers et al. 2000).
These biodiversity hotspots have been revised and 9 more biodiversity hotspots have
been suggested (some involve changing the boundaries of existing biodiversity hotspots,
e.g. the Himalaya Mountain System has been separated from the Indo-Burma
Biodiversity Hotspot), bringing the total to 34 biodiversity hotspots, but these new
biodiversity hotspots have not been peer reviewed and are still debated (Brooks et al.
2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006b). Dr Myers was involved in the biodiversity hotspot
website set up by Conservation International featuring all 34 biodiversity hotspots (see
site credits on the website by Brooks et al. (2006)).
Biodiversity hotspots are a form of prioritisation that is compatible with other schemes
(such as ecoregions) and should not be used in isolation (Myers 1990, Myers et al. 2000).
Note that Brook et al. (2006) include an assessment of amphibians and freshwater fish for
each biodiversity hotspot thus including the freshwater realm in the biodiversity hotspots.
Additional Notes
Extract from Wikipedia (2006B) ~ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/. “Endemic, in a broad
sense, can mean ‘belonging’ or ‘native to’, ‘characteristic of’, or ‘prevalent in’ a
particular geography, race, field, area, or environment; native to an area or scope.
It also has two specific meanings:
endemic (ecology): an organism being ‘endemic’ means exclusively native to a place or
biota
endemic (epidemiology), an infection is said to be ‘endemic’ in a population when that
infection is maintained in the population without the need for external inputs.”
Extract from Wikipedia (2006C) ~ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/: “In biology and
ecology endemic means exclusively native to a place or biota, in contrast to
cosmopolitan or introduced. However, it is also differentiated from indigenous: A species
that is endemic is unique to a defined place or region (in other words only found in that
place or region) and not naturally found anywhere else, whereas a species that is
indigenous to somewhere may be native to other locations as well. Usually the term is
applied to a discrete geographical unit, often an island or island group, but sometimes a
country, habitat type, or other defined area or zone. For example, we can say that the
Orange-breasted Sunbird Anthobaphes violacea is a Fynbos endemic (i.e. exclusively
found in the Fynbos vegetation type of southwestern South Africa), or that the Socotra
Sparrow Passer insularis is endemic to Socotra (only found in the Socotra island group).”
Hotspots (2)
The belief that the marine environment contains less diversity than the terrestrial
environment is based on the assumption that marine organisms have planktonic larvae
which disperse widely. However, this is not always the case. Not all marine organisms
have planktonic larval stages. The macroscopic coral reef organisms of about 5—50 mm
in length produce few larvae that are relatively large and/or have shortened development
periods. For these organisms, dispersal is short distance so their geographic ranges are
restricted making it very probable that coral reefs have high levels of unrecorded
diversity (Reaka-Kudla 1997).
Roberts et al. (2002a, b) started the process of delineating marine biodiversity hotspots by
analysing coral reefs using 69 lobster species, 662 snail species, 804 coral species and
1700 reef fish species (a total of 3235 species). Endemism (defined as a restricted range
of ≤10 cells of the equal area projection map with cells of about 50 000 km2) and risk of
habitat loss (because the information on habitat loss was unavailable, threat scores were
substituted) were used to identify 18 centres of endemism and 10 coral reef biodiversity
hotspots (threat scores range from 1—3; sites with threat scores higher than 1.67 were
considered marine biodiversity hotspots) (Roberts et al. 2002a).
The article and the supplementary material state explicitly that ongoing research shows
that this analysis is not comprehensive, even for coral reefs (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). No
coral reef cryptofauna were included in the analysis by Roberts et al. (2002a, b). These
cryptofauna are relatively poorly studied but contain most of the diversity and biomass of
the coral reef communities (Reaka-Kudla 1997). Roberts et al. (2002a, b) state explicitly
that the temperate and polar systems have not been considered but are seriously
threatened.
Most of the centres of endemism (14 of 18) and coral reef biodiversity hotspots (8 of 10)
adjoin terrestrial biodiversity hotspots. It would be worthwhile to expand the terrestrial
conservation actions to include marine areas (Roberts et al. 2002a).
Each biodiversity hotspot (terrestrial and marine) will be briefly discussed in the
following slides.
Additional Notes
Threats to coral reefs include pollution by oil and other chemicals, overexploitation,
sedimentation and eutrophication (caused by terrestrial habitat destruction and
agricultural runoff) and environmental changes such as temperature anomalies and
increased exposure to ultraviolet light. Coral reefs are also geologically linked with oil
repositories (Reaka-Kudla 1997).
Map of the 25 biodiversity hotspots from 2000
This map, from Myers et al. (2000), shows the global distribution of the 25 biodiversity
hotspots identified in 2000. For more information on the 25 peer reviewed terrestrial
biodiversity hotspots, see Myers et al. (2000). For more information on the 34 terrestrial
biodiversity hotspots, see Wikipedia and Conservation International’s website:
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/. The latter has an interactive map
showing all 34 terrestrial biodiversity hotspots.
From this point on, the term ‘hotspot’ will be used for ‘biodiversity hotspot’.
The California Floristic Province Hotspot
The California Floristic Province has a Mediterranean-type climate (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006c). The province extends beyond California into Oregon,
Nevada and Mexico’s Baja California (Wikipedia Contributors 2006c). It originally
covered 293 804 km2 (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006c) but only about
73 451 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows chaparral
vegetation in the foreground.
There are about 3488 species of vascular plants, of which 2124 are endemic.
Approximately 52 plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 157 mammal species, of
which 18 are endemic. Some mammal species that were historically present have been
lost from the hotspot (though not necessarily extinct elsewhere) since European
settlement. Of the 340 bird species, only 8 are endemic but the area is an important
breeding ground for many species. For reptiles, 4 species out of 69 are endemic. Two of
the endemic reptile species are restricted to Cedros Island. Of the 46 amphibian species,
25 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 73 species have been recorded, of which 15 are
endemic. The region is estimated to have about 28 000 insect species of which about
9000 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, logging, strip mining, oil extraction,
the expansion of agriculture and human overpopulation with its accompanying
urbanisation, pollution, road building, increasing use of off road vehicles and suppression
of natural fires (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006c). There are 121
people/km2 in the California Floristic Province Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands Hotspot
These woodlands occur in the mountainous areas of Mexico extending into the
southwestern United States where the climate is mostly temperate (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006d). The picture shows mountains with Madrean woodland.
Fir (Abies spp.), oak (Quercus spp.) and pine (Pinus spp.) are the prominent tree species.
This hotspot originally covered 461 265 km2 (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors
2006d) but only about 92 253 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 5300 species of vascular plants, of which 3975 are endemic. This
hotspot has 328 mammal species, of which only 6 are endemic. Despite the low number
of endemic mammal species, there are 2 endemic mammal genera. Of the 524 bird
species, 22 are endemic. There are 3 endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 37 species out of
384 are endemic. A snake genus is endemic. Of the 200 amphibian species, 50 are
endemic. For freshwater fish, 84 species have been recorded, of which 18 are endemic.
This hotspot has 160—200 butterfly species, of which about 45 are endemic. It is
important as an overwintering site for monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) (Brooks et
al. 2006).
This hotspot is especially threatened by logging, which focuses on pines and to a lesser
degree oaks. Other threats include the unsustainable use of non-timber products,
agricultural expansion and increased fire frequencies resulting from the use of fire to
stimulate pasture (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 32 people/km2 in the Madrean Pine-Oak
Woodlands Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Mesoamerica Hotspot
This tropical and subtropical hotspot covers most of the area culturally designated as
Mesoamerica and some islands (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006e). It
originally covered 1 130 019 km2 but only about 226 004 km2 are still primary
vegetation. Forests are the dominant vegetation type in this hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 17 000 species of vascular plants, of which 2941 are endemic. About 65
of the 2523 plant genera are endemic. Of these 65 genera, 50 have only a single species.
Each of the 3 endemic plant families has only 1 species. This hotspot has 440 mammal
species, of which 66 are endemic. There are 3 endemic mammal genera, each with a
single species. Some of the endemic mammal species are restricted to offshore islands.
Of the 1113 bird species, 208 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic quetzal
(Pharomachrus mocinno) – the national emblem of Guatemala (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are 20 endemic bird genera. The hotspot is also important as a resting point and
winter habitat for about 225 migratory bird species. For reptiles, 240 species out of 692
are endemic. This is the hotspot with the highest reptile diversity. There are many
endemic reptile genera and 1 turtle family (Dermatemydidae) is endemic. The beaches
are important nesting sites for marine turtles. Of the 555 amphibian species, 358 are
endemic. At least 11 of the 52 amphibian genera are endemic. More than 230 of the
amphibian species are threatened with extinction. For freshwater fish, 509 species have
been recorded, of which 340 are endemic. There are 25 endemic freshwater fish genera
(Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by oil extraction, mineral extraction, timber extraction, road
building which allows access to undisturbed areas, human overpopulation and poverty
which result in forest clearing for agriculture (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 72
people/km2 in the Mesoamerica Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Western Caribbean Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot stretches from Yucatan (Mexico) south to Colombia and is thus
adjacent to the terrestrial Mesoamerica and Caribbean Hotspots (Brooks et al. 2006,
Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about 4127 km2. Of the 3235 species
studied, this marine hotspot has 430 widespread species and 20 endemic species. The
threat score is 1.91 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include global warming and
disease (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated).
The Caribbean Hotspot
This hotspot is composed of islands spread over more than 4 million km2 of ocean
(Brooks et al. 2006). It contains widely different ecosystems (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006f). It originally covered 229 549 km2 but only about 22 955
km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 13 000 species of vascular plants, of which 6550 are endemic. There are
205 endemic plant genera and 1 plant family (Goetziaceae) is endemic. This hotspot has
89 mammal species, of which 41 are endemic. There are 15 endemic mammal genera.
Two rodent families are endemic. Of the 604 bird species, 163 are endemic. Of the
endemic bird species, 48 are threatened with extinction. There are 36 endemic bird
genera and 2 endemic bird families. The picture shows a female bee hummingbird
(Mellisuga helenae). For reptiles, 469 species out of 502 are endemic. All 170
amphibian species are endemic. Most are endemic to single islands. For freshwater fish,
161 species have been recorded, of which 65 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is especially threatened by invasive alien species. Other threats include
agricultural expansion (causing deforestation); mining of bauxite, sand and gravel;
charcoal production and tourism (which involves road building, landscaping with alien
species, golf courses and general tourist infrastructure and facilities) (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are 155 people/km2 in the Caribbean Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena Hotspot
This hotspot is tropical and includes the Galapagos Islands (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006g). Three countries (Colombia, Ecuador and Panama) have
portions of this hotspot. The hotspot borders the Mesoamerica Hotspot in the north and
the Tropical Andes Hotspot in the east. A wide range of habitats is to be found within
this hotspot. It originally covered 274 597 km2 but only about 65 903 km2 are still
primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 11 000 species of vascular plants, of which 2750 are endemic. This
hotspot has 285 mammal species, of which 11 are endemic. Of the 890 bird species, 110
are endemic. There are 14 endemic bird genera, of which 10 have only 1 species. For
reptiles, 98 species out of 327 are endemic. The region has 5 endemic reptile genera.
The picture shows a marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus). Of the 203 described
amphibian species, 30 are endemic. New amphibian species are still being discovered.
For freshwater fish, 251 species have been recorded, of which 115 are endemic. There
are 7 endemic freshwater fish genera (Brooks et al. 2006).
The threats to this hotspot depend on the country/region involved. In Ecuador, timber
and firewood extraction, aquaculture, agriculture and infrastructure, hunting and
plantations of exotic species threaten the hotspot. Human population growth adds to the
pressure. For amphibians, climate change and ultra-violet radiation are important. In
Panama, the biggest threats are mining and proposed road construction, while proposed
development threatens Colombia. The Galapagos Islands are threatened by invasive alien
species (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 51 people/km2 in the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Tropical Andes Hotspot
This tropical hotspot is the richest of all the hotspots. It originally covered 1 542 644 km2
but only about 385 661 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are at least 30 000 species of vascular plants, of which at least 15 000 are endemic.
More species are still being discovered. There are about 330 endemic plant genera and 1
endemic plant family, Columelliaceae. This hotspot has 570 mammal species, of which
75 are endemic. Nearly 70 of the endemic mammal species are threatened. There are 6
endemic mammal genera, all containing only a single species. The picture shows a
yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Oreonax flavicauda). Of the 1724 bird species, 579 are
endemic – the highest level of bird endemism in the world. There are 66 endemic bird
genera. For reptiles, 275 species out of 610 are endemic. There are 3 endemic reptile
genera. Of the 981 amphibian species, 673 are endemic. There are 8 endemic amphibian
genera. This is the most diverse hotspot in terms of amphibian diversity making it also
the most important globally for amphibians. For freshwater fish, 380 species have been
recorded, of which 131 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
Different altitudes have different threats though invasive alien species, poverty and
human population growth are general threats. The high altitudes are threatened by
seasonal burning, agriculture, mining and firewood extraction. The growth of the opium
poppy (Papaver somniferum) and the guerillas associated with the opium trade make
sustaining conservation activities difficult. The cloud forests are threatened by road and
dam construction, deforestation and agriculture. In the lowlands, oil exploration and
development and the mining of bauxite, diamonds, gold and iron threaten the
environment, as do the roads that accompany such industrial development (Brooks et al.
2006). There are 37 people/km2 in the Tropical Andes Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Chilean Winter Rainfall–Valdivian Forests Hotspot
This hotspot contains both a Mediterranean climate and winter rainfall deserts (Brooks et
al. 2006). The hotspot extends from Chile into western Argentina and also includes the
Juan Fernández Islands and the islands of San Félix and San Ambrosio (Brooks et al.
2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006h). It originally covered 397 142 km2 but only about
119 143 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 3892 species of vascular plants, of which 1957 are endemic. There are 3
endemic plant families and a number of endemic plant genera. This hotspot has 68
mammal species, of which 15 are endemic. There are 5 endemic mammal genera, only 1
of which has more than 1 species (the exception has 3 species) (Brooks et al. 2006). One
of the endemic genera (Dromiciops) is the only representative of both its family
(Microbiotheriidae) and its order (Microbiotheria) (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia
Contributors 2006i). This is the only hotspot with an endemic mammal order. Of the
226 bird species, 12 are endemic. Though the bird diversity is not great, there are 2
endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 27 species out of 41 are endemic. No turtles occur in
this hotspot. Of the 41 amphibian species, 29 are endemic. There is 1 endemic
amphibian family and 5 amphibian genera are endemic to this hotspot, 3 of which only
have 1 species. The picture shows Darwin’s frog (Rhinoderma darwini). For freshwater
fish, 43 species have been recorded, of which 24 are endemic. This hotspot has 2
endemic freshwater fish families (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, overgrazing (especially the
matorral), deforestation to make way for plantations of exotic species, the illegal wildlife
trade, fire (unlike the other Mediterranean-type regions, the vegetation is not adapted to
fire) and human population growth causing urbanisation (including facilities for tourism,
road building and hydroelectric complexes) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 37
people/km2 in the Chilean Winter Rainfall–Valdivian Forests Hotspot (Brooks et al.
2006).
The Atlantic Forest Hotspot
Known in Portuguese as the Mata Atlântica, this tropical forest hotspot is unusual
because it originally extended as far as 24oS. The Atlantic Forest still extends into
Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006j).
This hotspot also includes some islands off the Brazilian coast and the Fernando de
Noronha archipelago. It originally covered 1 233 875 km2 but only about 99 944 km2 are
still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 20 000 species of vascular plants, of which 8000 are endemic. This
hotspot has 264 mammal species, of which 72 are endemic. There are 12 endemic
mammal genera. The picture shows a golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia). Of
the 934 bird species, 144 are endemic with 23 endemic bird genera. One bird species (the
Alagoas curassow, Crax mitu) is extinct in the wild and survives only in captivity in Rio
de Janeiro. For reptiles, 94 species out of 311 are endemic. There are 8 endemic reptile
genera. Five marine turtles nest in this hotspot. Of the 456 amphibian species, 282 are
endemic, with 15 amphibian genera and 1 amphibian family endemic as well. For
freshwater fish, 350 species have been recorded, of which 133 are endemic. There are 10
endemic freshwater fish genera (Brooks et al. 2006).
The threats to this hotspot depend on the country/region involved. In Brazil, the threats
include industrial forestry in the heart of the region with logging and plantations of exotic
species, agriculture, urbanisation caused by human population growth, pollution from
heavy industry and charcoal and firewood extraction. In Argentina, the expansion and
intensification of agriculture, logging for plantation forestry and subsistence agriculture
caused by poverty are the major threats to the natural environment. In Paraguay, the
forest is being clear-cut for agriculture and settlements (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 87
people/km2 in the Atlantic Forest Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Cerrado Hotspot
Though tropical, this hotspot has a distinct dry season from May to September. It is
Brazil’s second biggest biome and extends into Bolivia and Paraguay. Originally, it
covered 2 031 990 km2 but only about 438 910 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks
et al. 2006). The picture shows the savannah vegetation of the Cerrado.
There are about 10 000 species of vascular plants, of which 4400 are endemic. This
hotspot has 195 mammal species, of which 14 are endemic. There are 3 endemic
mammal genera. Of the 607 bird species, 17 are endemic. For reptiles, 33 species out of
225 are endemic. Of the 186 amphibian species, 28 are endemic. For freshwater fish,
800 species have been recorded, of which 200 are endemic. There are nearly 20 endemic
freshwater fish genera. From preliminary data, the area is estimated to have about 10 000
species of Lepidoptera, nearly 146 termite species, about 138 sociable wasp species and
more than 800 bee species (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, the expansion of agriculture, the
development of infrastructure (e.g. roads, railways and hydropower plants) and charcoal
production (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 13 people/km2 in the Cerrado Hotspot
(Brooks et al. 2006).
The Succulent Karoo Hotspot
This is 1 of 2 entirely arid hotspots. The region, extending from South Africa into
Namibia, is usually split by rainfall patterns into 2 parts: Namaqualand (mainly winter
rainfall) and the southern Karoo (bimodal spring and autumn rainfall) (Brooks et al.
2006). It originally covered 102 691 km2 but only about 29 780 km2 are still primary
vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 6356 species of vascular plants, of which 2439 are endemic. The picture
shows a half-mens (Pachypodium namaquanum). This hotspot has 80 endemic plant
genera. This hotspot has 75 mammal species, of which only 2 are endemic. The large
mammal species whose distributions used to include the gallery forests of the Orange
River are no longer found in this hotspot. Of the 226 bird species, only 1 is endemic. For
reptiles, 15 species out of 94 are endemic. Of the 21 amphibian species, only 1 is
endemic. For freshwater fish, 26 species have been recorded, none of which are endemic.
Invertebrate endemism is estimated to be more than half the number of species. Twentyeight plant species are adapted for fly pollination (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by illegal species collection, mining of diamonds and heavy
minerals, overgrazing and both dryland and irrigated agriculture and the infrastructure
(e.g. dams) needed for irrigation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 4 people/km2 in the
Succulent Karoo Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Cape Floristic Region Hotspot
One of the 5 hotspots with a Mediterranean-type climate, this hotspot is unique to South
Africa (Brooks et al. 2006). Some classifications class this hotspot as a floral kingdom
(Goldblatt & Manning 2000, Brooks et al. 2006). It originally covered 78 555 km2 but
only about 15 711 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 9000 species of vascular plants, of which about 6210 are endemic. There
are 160 endemic plant genera and 5 endemic plant families (Goldblatt & Manning 2000,
Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows the endemic Roridula gorgonias, a representative
of the endemic family Roridulaceae. This hotspot has 91 mammal species, of which 4
are endemic. Most of the large mammal species that were historically present no longer
occur in this hotspot. Of the 323 bird species, only 6 are endemic. For reptiles, 22
species out of 100 are endemic. Of the 46 amphibian species, 16 are endemic. The 2
endemic amphibian genera are represented by a single species each. For freshwater fish,
34 species have been recorded, of which 14 are endemic. The limited existing data
suggest that invertebrate endemism is high. About 69 of the 230 species of butterflies are
endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is most threatened by invasive alien species. Urbanisation and agriculture
are also serious threats (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 51 people/km2 in the Cape
Floristic Region Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot
This hotspot features unusually species rich temperate forests. The hotspot is shared by
South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique. It originally covered 274 163 km2 but only
about 67 163 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 8100 species of vascular plants, of which 1900 are endemic. The picture
shows the endemic bird-of-paradise flower (Strelitzia reginae). The hotspot has 39
endemic plant genera and a single endemic plant family (Rhynchocalycaceae) that has
only 1 species representing it. This hotspot has 194 mammal species, of which 4 are
endemic. None of the 541 bird species are endemic. For reptiles, 30 species out of 209
are endemic. There is 1 endemic reptile genus. Of the 72 amphibian species, 11 are
endemic. All the amphibian species are frogs. For freshwater fish, 73 species have been
recorded, of which 20 are endemic. The region is rich in invertebrate fauna (Brooks et al.
2006).
The major threats to this hotspot are agriculture, plantation forestry using exotic species
and urbanisation. Other threats include invasive alien species, localised titanium mining
and charcoal production (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 70 people/km2 in the
Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Eastern South Africa Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot stretches from Natal to East London and is thus nearest to the
terrestrial Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al.
2002b). The coral reefs cover about 178 km2. Of the 3235 species studied, this marine
hotspot has 542 widespread species and 30 endemic species. The threat score is 2.36
(Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include fishing, pollution from on land and tourism
(Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated).
The Southern Mascarene Islands Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes the islands of La Reunion, Mauritius and Rodriguez (but not
Madagascar) and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Madagascar and the Indian Ocean
Islands Hotspot (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about 205 km2. Of the
3235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 746 widespread species and 16 endemic
species. The threat score is 2.45 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal
development, overfishing, pollution from agriculture esp. sugar cane and a growing
human population (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated).
The Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands Hotspot
Also known as the Madagascar Region, this hotspot is the result of evolution in isolation
(Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006k). It originally covered 600 461 km2
but only about 60 046 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 13 000 species of vascular plants, of which 11 600 are endemic. There
are at least 310 endemic plant genera. Eight endemic plant families are found in this
hotspot; the most in any hotspot! This hotspot has 155 mammal species, of which 144
are endemic. Six mammal families are endemic to Madagascar. Five of these families
represent the lemurs, making this the hotspot with the highest primate endemism in the
world. The picture shows Madame Berthe's mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae). Of the
310 bird species, 181 are endemic. There are 42 endemic bird genera and 4 endemic bird
families. For reptiles, 367 species out of 384 are endemic. There is 1 endemic reptile
family in this hotspot. Of the 230 amphibian species, only 1 is not an endemic. Two
amphibian families are endemic to this hotspot. For freshwater fish, 164 species have
been recorded, of which 97 are endemic. There are 14 endemic freshwater fish genera
and 2 endemic freshwater fish families. While the invertebrate fauna is poorly known,
the endemism for the recorded species is above 80% (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth (Mauritius has about 538
people/km2), agriculture, timber extraction and plantations, hunting and invasive alien
species (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 32 people/km2 in the Madagascar and the Indian
Ocean Islands Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Hotspot
This tropical/subtropical hotspot includes the islands of Mafia, Pemba, Zanzibar and the
Bazarruto Archipelago. It originally covered 291 250 km2 but only about 29 125 km2 are
still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 4000 species of vascular plants, of which 1750 are endemic. At least 28
plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 198 mammal species, of which 11 are
endemic. The picture shows a golden-rumped elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon
chrysopygus). Of the 633 bird species, 11 are endemic. For reptiles, 53 species out of
254 are endemic. There is 1 reptile genus, Scolecoseps, that is endemic. Of the 88
amphibian species, 6 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 219 species have been recorded,
of which 32 are endemic. The region has high endemism for millipedes (about 80%) and
mollusks (about 68%) (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by agriculture, urbanisation, charcoal production, firewood
collection, timber extraction (especially near tourist areas), the uncontrolled use of fire
and mining (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 52 people/km2 in the Coastal Forests of
Eastern Africa Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Horn of Africa Hotspot
This is the second arid hotspot. The Socotra Archipelago and the islands in the Red Sea
are included in this hotspot, which originally covered 1 659 363 km2 of which only about
82 968 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). The lower picture shows
vegetation in Eritrea.
There are about 5000 species of vascular plants, of which 2750 are endemic. There are
13 plant genera that are endemic to the Socotra Archipelago and 2 endemic plant families
(Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006l). This hotspot has 220 mammal
species, of which 20 are endemic. There are 5 endemic mammal genera in the region. Of
the 697 bird species, 24 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). For reptiles, 93 species out of
285 are endemic. This is the highest proportion of reptile endemism in Africa (Brooks et
al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006l). The upper picture shows an endemic snake
species (Ditypophis vivax). Of the 30 amphibian species, 6 are endemic. Only 1
amphibian genus is endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). For freshwater fish, 100 species have
been recorded, of which 10 are endemic. The endemic species include 3 cave dwellers,
each the sole representative of its genus (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors
2006l).
This hotspot is threatened by overgrazing and uncontrolled hunting. Political instability
complicates conservation activities in the region. In Somalia, shifting agriculture and
charcoal production are threats to the natural environment. Agricultural development of
the Rift Valley and riparian zones is a threat in both Somalia and Ethiopia. The
development of infrastructure is a threat on Socotra (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia
Contributors 2006l). There are 23 people/km2 in the Horn of Africa Hotspot (Brooks et
al. 2006).
The Red Sea Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot covers the Red Sea. This includes the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez and
the inner part of Gulf of Aden and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Horn of Africa
Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al. 2002b). The coral reefs cover about 16 194
km2. Of the 3235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 661 widespread species and 18
endemic species. The threat score is 1.77 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include
coastal development, industrial development and tourism in the adjacent countries
(Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated). The picture shows masked butterfly
fish (Chaetodon semilarvatus).
The Eastern Afromontane Hotspot
The term ‘afromontane’ refers to the African mountains and the mountains of the
southern Arabian Peninsula (Wikipedia Contributors 2006m). This hotspot covers
biogeographically similar mountain ranges that are widely scattered. It originally
covered 1 017 806 km2 but only about 106 870 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks
et al. 2006).
There are about 7598 species of vascular plants, of which 2356 are endemic. There are at
least 43 endemic plant genera. This hotspot has 490 mammal species, of which 104 are
endemic. There are at least 7 endemic mammal genera. This hotspot is important for
primate conservation. Of the 1299 bird species, 106 are endemic. There are at least 7
endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 93 species out of 347 are endemic. Of the 229
amphibian species, 68 are endemic. There are at least 11 endemic amphibian genera. For
freshwater fish, 893 species have been recorded, of which 617 are endemic. The hotspot
includes the Great Rift Lakes and is therefore critically important for freshwater fish
conservation (Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows Lamprologus multifasciatus, a
cichlid endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
Human population growth is a major threat to the region’s biota. This hotspot is also
threatened by agriculture, plantations, logging, the overexploitation of non-timber forest
products, commercial estates, fire, mining, infrastructure development, firewood
collection, charcoal production, medicinal plant collection, hunting, poaching and
disease. Many trained conservationists have been killed in the region (Brooks et al.
2006). There are 95 people/km2 in the Eastern Afromontane Hotspot (Brooks et al.
2006).
The Gulf of Guinea Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes the islands of Annobon, Bioko, Principe and São Tomé and
is thus adjacent to the terrestrial West African Forests Hotspot (Roberts et al. 2002a, b).
The area covered by coral reefs is not available. Of the 3235 species studied, this marine
hotspot has 33 widespread species and 45 endemic species. The threat score is 2.61
(Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, overfishing,
sedimentation from logging and a potential coral harvesting business (Center for Applied
Biodiversity Science Undated).
The West African Forests Hotspot
Alternately called the Guinean Forests of West Africa, this lowland forest hotspot
includes four islands: Annobon, Bioko, Príncipe and São Tomé. It originally covered
620 314 km2 but only about 93 047 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 9000 species of vascular plants, of which 1800 are endemic. The islands
of Príncipe and São Tomé each have an endemic plant genus. This hotspot has 320
mammal species, of which 67 are endemic. There are 7 endemic mammal genera. The
region is important for primate conservation as it has 18 endemic primate species. Of the
785 bird species, 75 are endemic. There are 7 endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 52
species out of 210 are endemic. More work needs to be done on the reptiles and
amphibians occurring in this hotspot. Of the 221 amphibian species, 85 are endemic.
The picture shows the endemic Mount Nimba toad (Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis)
which has a 9 month gestation period before fully developed ‘toadlets’ are born. For
freshwater fish, 512 species have been recorded, of which 143 are endemic. The region
has 5 endemic cichlid genera (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is badly fragmented. Political instability, poverty and human population
growth are the major threats to this hotspot. Direct threats include logging, agriculture,
hunting, mining and infrastructure development (particularly roads) (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are 137 people/km2 in the West African Forests Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Cape Verde Islands Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot is restricted to the Cape Verde Islands and is thus adjacent to the
terrestrial Mediterranean Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al. 2002b). The area
covered by coral reefs is not available. Of the 3235 species studied, this marine hotspot
has 25 widespread species and 26 endemic species. The threat score is 2.20 (Roberts et
al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, overfishing and pollution from the
land (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated).
The Mediterranean Basin Hotspot
Myers (1990) originally considered this region too large to be a hotspot but changed his
mind with the next revision (Myers et al. 2000). This is the largest of the 5 hotspots with
a Mediterranean-type climate. It includes the islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the
Azores, Cape Verde, the Macaronesian Islands of the Canaries, Madeira and the Selvages
(Brooks et al. 2006). It originally covered 2 085 292 km2 but only about 98 009 km2 are
still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006n).
There are about 22 500 species of vascular plants, of which 11 700 are endemic. There
are 2 endemic plant families. This hotspot has 226 mammal species, of which 25 are
endemic. Of the 489 bird species, 25 are endemic. The region is also important as part
of the migration routes of many bird species. For reptiles, 77 species out of 230 are
endemic. Four reptile genera are endemic to this hotspot. The picture shows an endemic
lizard (Algyroides nigropunctatus) – a member of one of the endemic genera. Of the 79
amphibian species, 27 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 216 species have been recorded,
of which 63 are endemic. Six freshwater fish genera and 1 freshwater fish family are
endemic to this hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is badly fragmented. It is presently threatened by overgrazing, urban
expansion and tourism (including infrastructure development). Northern Africa is also
threatened by human population growth and agricultural intensification – both of which
are causing water shortages and desertification (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 111
people/km2 in the Mediterranean Basin Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Caucasus Hotspot
Also known as Caucasia, this hotspot lies between the Black and Caspian Seas (Brooks et
al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006o). It originally covered 532 658 km2 but only
about 143 818 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 6400 species of vascular plants, of which 1600 are endemic. The picture
shows the endemic Rhododendron caucasicum. This hotspot has 17 endemic plant
genera. This hotspot has 131 mammal species, of which 18 are endemic. Of the 378 bird
species, only 1 is endemic. The region is important as a corridor for migratory birds. For
reptiles, 20 species out of 86 are endemic. Of the 17 amphibian species, 3 are endemic.
For freshwater fish, 127 species have been recorded, of which 12 are endemic (Brooks et
al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by illegal timber cutting for fuel, overgrazing and poaching
(Brooks et al. 2006). There are 68 people/km2 in the Caucasus Hotspot (Brooks et al.
2006).
The Irano-Anatolian Hotspot
The topography of this hotspot forms a natural barrier between the Mediterranean Basin
and the plateaus of Western Asia. It originally covered 899 773 km2 but only about
134 966 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 6000 species of vascular plants, of which 2500 are endemic. This
hotspot has 142 mammal species, of which 10 are endemic. None of the 362 bird species
are endemic but the area is an important breeding ground for many species. For reptiles,
12 species out of 116 are endemic. Of the 18 amphibian species, 2 are endemic. The
picture shows an endemic salamander (Neurergus microspilotus). For freshwater fish, 90
species have been recorded, of which 30 are endemic. The region has at least 350
butterfly species, of which almost 20 are endemic. More than 40 species of scorpion
have been described (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by agricultural development (particularly irrigation and its
associated dams), overgrazing, excessive firewood collection, mining, military operations
and human population growth (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 58 people/km2 in the
Irano-Anatolian Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot
The Western Ghats portion of this hotspot consists of the mountain range that parallels
India’s western coast and the adjacent coastal plains. Sri Lanka, a continental island, is
separated from India by the Palk Strait. This hotspot originally covered 189 611 km2 but
only about 43 611 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 5916 species of vascular plants, of which 3049 are endemic. More than
80 plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 140 mammal species, of which 18 are
endemic. There are 4 endemic mammal genera. Of the 458 bird species, 35 are endemic.
The picture shows the endemic rufous-breasted laughingthrush (Garrulax cachinnans).
For reptiles, 174 species out of 267 are endemic. Approximately ¼ of the reptile genera
are endemic to this hotspot. Of the 178 amphibian species, 130 are endemic. There are 6
endemic amphibian genera and an endemic anuran family (Nasikabatrachidae) that is
represented by a single species. For freshwater fish, 191 species have been recorded, of
which 139 are endemic. Nine freshwater fish genera are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
Human population pressure on the natural environment including all protected areas is
the ultimate problem in this hotspot. For the Western Ghats, logging, plantations,
agriculture, infrastructure development, overgrazing, hunting, firewood, non-timber
forest product extraction, forest fires and unregulated tourism are the main threats. For
Sri Lanka, agriculture (including unrestricted agrochemical use), urbanisation, forest
product extraction, poaching and invasive alien species are the worst threats (Brooks et
al. 2006). There are 261 people/km2 in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot
(Brooks et al. 2006).
The Northern Indian Ocean Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes Lakshadweep, the Maldives, southern India and Sri Lanka
and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot (Roberts et al.
2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about 9790 km2. Of the 3235 species studied, this
marine hotspot has 1053 widespread species and 31 endemic species. The threat score is
2.22 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include overfishing, the live fish trade, coral
mining and global warming (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated).
The Mountains of Central Asia Hotspot
This hotspot comprises the Pamir and Tien Shan mountain ranges. It originally covered
863 362 km2 but only about 172 672 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al.
2006).
There are about 5500 species of vascular plants, of which 1500 are endemic. Sixty-four
plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 143 mammal species, of which 6 are
endemic. The picture shows the endemic ili pika (Ochotona iliensis). None of the 489
bird species are endemic but the region is an important breeding ground for raptors. For
reptiles, only 1 species out of 59 is endemic. Of the 7 amphibian species, 4 are endemic.
For freshwater fish, 27 species have been recorded, of which 5 are endemic. Of the 26
recorded species of Apollo butterflies, 11 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, overgrazing, poaching,
unregulated plant collection, firewood extraction, agriculture, forest fires, settlement
expansion, infrastructure development (e.g. roads and recreational facilities), mining,
war, minefields, dams, irrigation systems and global warming (the glaciers are melting)
(Brooks et al. 2006). There are 42 people/km2 in the Mountains of Central Asia Hotspot
(Brooks et al. 2006).
The Himalaya Hotspot
This hotspot is a massive mountain system with a variety of habitats (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006p). It originally covered 741 706 km2 but only about
185 427 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 10 000 species of vascular plants, of which 3160 are endemic. There are
71 endemic plant genera and 5 endemic plant families. The species Ermania
himalayensis has been found at an altitude of 6300 metres above sea level. This hotspot
has 300 mammal species, of which 12 are endemic. The picture shows a male Himalayan
tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). There is an endemic flying squirrel genus. Of the 977
bird species, 115 are endemic. For reptiles, 48 species out of 176 are endemic. There is
an endemic lizard genus. Of the 105 amphibian species, 42 are endemic. For freshwater
fish, 269 species have been recorded, of which 33 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This
hotspot is threatened by human population growth, logging, agriculture, fire (used to
clear the land), settlements, overgrazing, overexploitation of medicinal plants, firewood
collection, non-timber product extraction, tourism, political unrest and poaching (Brooks
et al. 2006). There are 123 people/km2 in the Himalaya Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Mountains of Southwest China Hotspot
This hotspot lies east of the Himalaya Hotspot. Its mountains have a north-south
orientation that is perpendicular to the orientation of the principal Himalayan mountain
chain. It originally covered 262 446 km2 but only about 20 996 km2 are still primary
vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 12 000 species of vascular plants, of which 3500 are endemic. At least
20 plant genera and 2 plant families are endemic to these mountains. This hotspot has
237 mammal species, of which 5 are endemic. Of the 611 bird species, only about 2 are
endemic. The picture shows a Sichuan partridge (Arborophila rufipectus). For reptiles,
15 species out of 92 are endemic. Of the 90 amphibian species, 8 are endemic. For
freshwater fish, 92 species have been recorded, of which 23 are endemic. There are 2
endemic freshwater fish genera (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by high human population growth, logging, firewood
collection, building construction, pastures and overgrazing (causing erosion and siltation
in rivers), dam building, mining, road building, uncontrolled unplanned development for
mass tourism, collection of traditional medication and illegal hunting (Brooks et al.
2006). There are 32 people/km2 in the Mountains of Southwest China Hotspot (Brooks et
al. 2006).
The Indo-Burma Hotspot
This hotspot has unique seasonal weather patterns. Several islands, such as the Andaman
Islands and Hainan Island are included in this hotspot. It originally covered 2 373 057
km2 but only about 118 653 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
Socio-political divisions hamper the study of the flora in the Indo-Burma Hotspot. There
are about 13 500 species of vascular plants, of which 7000 are endemic. This hotspot has
433 mammal species, of which 73 are endemic. Seven mammal genera are endemic and
there is an endemic bat family. Of the 1266 bird species, 64 are endemic, with 5 endemic
bird genera. The rivers and wetlands of this hotspot are critical for the conservation of
several widespread bird species that have been suffering population declines. For
reptiles, 204 species out of 522 are endemic. There are 12 endemic reptile genera in this
hotspot. Of the 286 amphibian species, 154 are endemic. Three amphibian genera are
endemic. For freshwater fish, 1262 species have been recorded, of which 553 are
endemic. Given the number of freshwater species occurring in the region, it is not
surprising that there are 30 endemic freshwater fish genera and 1 endemic family
(Indostomidae) (Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows an armoured stickleback
(Indostomus sp., Family Indostomidae).
This hotspot is principally threatened by human population growth and economic
development. On the ground, the threats take the form of fire, plantation forestry,
commercial logging, firewood collection, charcoal production, mining, wetland drainage,
damming of rivers, upsets to the flood cycle caused by reservoir management,
aquaculture, tree planting on mudflats, overfishing, destructive fishing techniques and the
wildlife trade (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 134 people/km2 in the Indo-Burma Hotspot
(Brooks et al. 2006).
The Sundaland Hotspot
This hotspot forms the western portion of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including some
17 000 islands and the Malay Peninsula (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors
2006q). Three other hotspots adjoin this one: the Indo-Burma Hotspot, the Philippines
Hotspot and the Wallacea Hotspot. This hotspot originally covered 1 501 063 km2 but
only about 100 571 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 25 000 species of vascular plants, of which 15 000 are endemic. While
only 1 plant family (Scyphostegiaceae) is endemic, at least 117 plant genera are endemic
to this hotspot. This hotspot has 380 mammal species, of which 172 are endemic.
Seventeen mammal genera are endemic to this hotspot. Of the 769 bird species, 142 are
endemic. For reptiles, 243 species out of 452 are endemic. At a higher taxonomic level,
24 reptile genera and 3 reptile families are endemic to this hotspot. Of the 244 amphibian
species, 196 are endemic. Seven amphibian genera are endemic. The picture shows an
endemic slender toad (Leptophryne borbonica). For freshwater fish, 950 species have
been recorded, of which 350 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by commercial and illegal logging, agriculture, rubber
production, pulp production, non-timber forest product harvesting, oil palm plantations,
military and police activities, road construction, mining, fires, the wildlife trade and
political developments such as the Transmigration Program (Brooks et al. 2006). There
are 153 people/km2 in the Sundaland Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Sunda Islands Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot stretches from West Java east to Kepulauan Tanimbar and is thus
adjacent to the terrestrial Sundaland and Wallacea Hotspots (Roberts et al. 2002a, b).
The coral reefs cover about 12 639 km2. Of the 3235 species studied, this marine hotspot
has 1430 widespread species and 13 endemic species. The threat score is 2.53 (Roberts
et al. 2002a). The threats include intensive destructive fishing, pollution from land and
an expanding live fish trade (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated).
The Wallacea Hotspot
This hotspot, comprising the central islands of Indonesia, is separated from Sundaland by
Wallace’s Line (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006r). It originally covered
338 494 km2 but only about 50 774 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 10 000 species of vascular plants, of which 1500 are endemic. At least
12 plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 222 mammal species, of which 127 are
endemic. Of the 647 bird species, 262 are endemic with 29 endemic bird genera. The
picture shows a maleo (Macrocephalon maleo). For reptiles, 99 species out of 222 are
endemic. Three snake genera are endemic to this hotspot. Of the 48 amphibian species,
33 are endemic. All the amphibian species are frogs. For freshwater fish, 250 species
have been recorded, of which 50 are endemic. Almost all the fish species are salt
tolerant. There are at least 2 endemic freshwater fish genera. Upwards of 80 bird-wing
butterfly species occur in this hotspot. Of these bird-wing butterfly species, at least 40
are endemic. Of the recorded 109 tiger beetle species, 79 are endemic (Brooks et al.
2006).
This hotspot is threatened by commercial logging, agriculture, timber plantations, land
settlement schemes, fire, mining development, hunting and poaching (Brooks et al.
2006). There are 81 people/km2 in the Wallacea Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
Additional Notes
Extract from Wikipedia (2006D) ~ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/. “The Wallace Line is a
boundary that separates the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australasia. West of the
line are found organisms related to Asiatic species; to the east, mostly organisms related
to Australian species. The line is named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who noticed the
apparent dividing line during his travels through the East Indies in the 19th century. The
line runs through the Malay Archipelago, between Borneo and Sulawesi (Celebes); and
between Bali (in the west) and Lombok (in the east). Evidence of the line was also noted
in Antonio Pigafetta's biological contrasts between the Philippines and the Spice Islands,
recorded during the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.”
The Philippines Hotspot
The 7100 islands of the Philippines are both a hotspot and a megadiverse country. This
makes the Philippines a top conservation priority. This hotspot originally covered 297
179 km2 but only about 20 803 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 9253 species of vascular plants, of which 6091 are endemic. Twenty-six
plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 167 mammal species, of which 102 are
endemic. The generic mammal endemism is also high, of 83 genera, 23 are endemic. Of
the 535 bird species, 186 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic wiskered pitta
(Pitta kochi). One bird family (Rhabdornithidae) is endemic. For reptiles, 160 species
out of 237 are endemic. There are 6 endemic reptile genera in this hotspot. Of the 89
recorded amphibian species, 76 are endemic. New amphibian species are still being
discovered and described. For freshwater fish, 281 species have been recorded, of which
67 are endemic. There are 9 endemic freshwater fish genera. Nearly 21 000 insect
species have been recorded in the Philippines. The species endemism is about 70%. Of
the 915 butterfly species about a 1/3 are endemic. More than 130 species of tiger beetle
have been recorded of which more than 110 species are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species (especially in wetlands, the native
species of Lake Lanao have almost certainly been lost), severe rural poverty, logging
(both legal and illegal), mining, land conversion and the country’s development
objectives (including roads, irrigation, power and energy development and ports) (Brooks
et al. 2006). There are 273 people/km2 in the Philippines Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Philippines Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot consists of the Philippine archipelago and is thus adjacent to the
terrestrial Philippines Hotspot (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about
21 983 km2. Of the 3235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 1471 widespread
species and 17 endemic species. The threat score is 2.91 – the highest of all the marine
hotspots (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include overfishing, the use of explosives
and poison in fishing and polluted runoff from the land caused by agriculture, logging
and urban development (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science Undated).
The Southern Japan, Taiwan and Southern China Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes the Ryukyu Islands, Southern China and Taiwan and is thus
adjacent to the terrestrial Japan and Philippines Hotspots (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et
al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about 3136 km2. Of the 3235 species studied, this
marine hotspot has 1187 widespread species and 75 endemic species. The threat score is
2.21 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, global climate
change and plagues of crown-of-thorns starfish (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science
Undated).
The Japan Hotspot
Situated at the junction of three tectonic plates are the 3000 and more islands that make
up the Japanese archipelago which forms this hotspot. This hotspot has a comparatively
wide latitudinal range – it stretches from about 22oN latitude to roughly 46oN latitude. It
originally covered 373 490 km2 but only about 74 698 km2 are still primary vegetation
(Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 5600 species of vascular plants, of which 1950 are endemic. Three
endemic plant families and about 20 endemic plant genera occur in Japan. This hotspot
has 94 mammal species, of which 46 are endemic. Six mammal genera are endemic to
Japan. Of the 366 bird species, 13 are endemic. At least 2 bird genera are endemic to
Japan. For reptiles, 28 species out of 66 are endemic. Of the 50 amphibian species, 44
are endemic. The picture shows a subadult oki salamander (Hynobius okiensis). For
freshwater fish, 214 species have been recorded, of which 52 are endemic. Four
freshwater fish genera are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, development of ski resorts and golf
courses, road development, wetland drainage for agriculture, river channelisation,
plantation forestry and urban development (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 336
people/km2 in the Japan Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Polynesia-Micronesia Hotspot
Also known as Oceania, this tropical/subtropicl hotspot, consisting of at least 4500
islands spread over about 40 million km2 of the Pacific Ocean, has one of the smallest
land areas of all the hotspots (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006s). It
originally covered 47 239 km2 but only about 10 015 km2 are still primary vegetation
(Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 5330 species of vascular plants, of which 3074 are endemic. The family
Degeneriaceae is endemic. This hotspot has 16 mammal species, of which 12 are
endemic. All but 1 of the mammal species are bat species. The exception is the endemic
Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi). Of the 292 bird species, 163 are
endemic. About 1/4 of all the bird genera are endemic to the region. For reptiles, 31
species out of 64 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic Fijian crested iguana
(Brachylophus vitiensis). There are 2 endemic reptile genera. All 3 amphibian species
belong to the genus Platymantis and are endemic. While none of the species of fish are
purely freshwater fish, 96 species have a freshwater adult stage (the larval stages are
marine). Twenty fish species are endemic. Land snail diversity is exceptional in this
region – of 13 families of pulmonate land snails, 4 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is extremely threatened by invasive alien species (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006s). Hawaii has a greater diversity of invasive alien plant
species than of native plant species. Other threats include logging, agriculture,
urbanisation and its accompanying commercialisation, hunting, trapping and fire. Rising
sea levels caused by global warming threaten low-lying islands (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are 59 people/km2 in the Polynesia-Micronesia Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The East Melanesian Islands Hotspot
This hotspot consists of the islands of Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck
and Admiralty Islands – about 1600 islands in all (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia
Contributors 2006t). It originally covered 99 384 km2 but only about 29 815 km2 are still
primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 8000 species of vascular plants, of which 3000 are endemic. This
hotspot has 86 mammal species, of which 39 are endemic. There are 3 endemic bat
genera. Of the 360 bird species, 149 are endemic. There are 7 endemic bird genera. For
reptiles, 54 species out of 117 are endemic. Five of the 6 endemic reptile genera have
only a single species. Of the 42 amphibian species, 38 are endemic. The picture shows
the endemic Solomon Island eyelash frog (Ceratobatrachus guentheri). Two of the 4
endemic amphibian genera only have 1 species. For freshwater fish, 52 species have
been recorded, of which only 3 are endemic. The fish all have marine origins and are
able to tolerate a wide range of salt concentrations (Brooks et al. 2006).
The threats to this hotspot vary from island to island. Human population growth and
invasive alien species are a general threat. In the Bismarck Islands, the Solomon Islands
and Vanuatu logging and clearing for plantations are the worst threats. In the Admiralty
Islands, agricultural expansion has been the worst threat. Mining and poor governance
are also threats (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 13 people/km2 in the East Melanesian
Islands Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The New Caledonia Hotspot
This hotspot consists of islands - the island of Grande Terre, Belep Island, Surprise
Island, the Loyalty Islands, the Isle of Pines, the Chesterfield Islands, Hunter Island and
Matthew Island. One of the smallest hotspots, it originally covered 18 972 km2 but only
about 5122 km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 3270 species of vascular plants, of which 2432 are endemic. With 108
endemic plant genera and 5 endemic plant families, this hotspot is often classified as a
distinct floristic subkingdom. The 9 mammal species of this hotspot are all bat species.
Six bat species are endemic. Of the 105 bird species, 23 are endemic (Brooks et al.
2006). Three endemic bird genera and 1 endemic bird family (Rhynochetidae) occur in
this hotspot. For reptiles, 62 species out of 70 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006u). Eleven reptile genera are endemic to this hotspot. New
Caledonia has no native amphibian species. For freshwater fish, 85 species have been
recorded, of which 9 are endemic. The freshwater fish genus Protogobius is endemic to
New Caledonia. The picture shows an endemic loach goby (Protogobius attiti). This
hotspot is rich in land snails, of which 200 species have been described so far. About 15
of an estimated 37 species of macro-crustaceans are endemic. To date, 4000 insect
species have been recorded. There are 70 butterfly species, 300 moth species and 16
tiger beetle species recorded. Almost 200 spiders have been classified so far. New
Caledonia has the only spider family that is endemic to a single island – the
Bradystichidae (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, nickel mining (which causes
deforestation, erosion and consequently the destruction of streams and coral reefs by
siltation and water pollution), bush fires, logging, hunting and the illegal collection of
selected animal species for trade (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006u).
There are 11 people/km2 in the New Caledonia Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The New Zealand Hotspot
This hotspot comprises North Island, South Island, Stewart Island, the Kermadec Islands,
the Chatham Islands, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, the Antipodes Islands, the
Auckland Islands, the Bounty Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island and the Snares
Islands. It originally covered 270 197 km2 but only about 59 443 km2 are still primary
vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are about 2300 species of vascular plants, of which 1865 are endemic. There are
35 endemic plant genera and 1 endemic plant family (Ixerbaceae) in this region. This
hotspot has 10 mammal species, of which 3 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). Of these
species, only 2 are terrestrial. Both land species are endemic bat species and 1 of them
represents the endemic bat family (Mystacinidae) (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia
Contributors 2006v). Of the 195 bird species, 86 are endemic with 17 endemic bird
genera and 3 endemic bird families as well (Brooks et al. 2006). By one classification,
this hotspot is unique in that it has an endemic bird order (Apterygiformes - the kiwis),
however, another classification lists the endemic family Apterygidae as belonging to the
order Struthioniformes, which is not endemic to New Zealand (Brooks et al. 2006,
Wikipedia Contributors 2006w). All the 37 reptile species are endemic. Five reptile
genera are endemic. The tuatara forms an endemic reptile order (Rhynchocephalia). The
picture shows a tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). All 4 amphibian species belong to the
endemic frog family Leiopelmatidae. For freshwater fish, 39 species have been recorded,
of which 25 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species and massive habitat destruction in the
form of deforestation, ecosystem degradation and wetland drainage (Brooks et al. 2006).
There are 14 people/km2 in the New Zealand Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
The Southwest Australia Hotspot
This hotspot matches the Southwest Botanical Province of Australia and has a
Mediterranean-type climate. It originally covered 356 717 km2 but only about 107 015
km2 are still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006x).
There are about 5571 species of vascular plants, of which 2948 are endemic. Four plant
families and 87 plant genera are endemic. The pictures show the endemic pitcher plant
(Cephalotus follicularis) – a close up of the leaves and a whole plant. This hotspot has
59 mammal species, of which 12 are endemic. The mammal family Tarsipedidae is
endemic to this hotspot. Of the 285 bird species, 10 are endemic. For reptiles, 27 species
out of 177 are endemic. At least 1 reptile genus is endemic. Of the 32 amphibian
species, 22 are endemic. At least 4 amphibian genera are endemic. For freshwater fish,
20 species have been recorded, of which 10 are endemic. Three freshwater fish genera
are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, agriculture, bush fires (used in
hunting and land clearing) and the mining of bauxite and aluminium (which causes
habitat destruction and water pollution) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 5 people/km2 in
the Southwest Australia Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).
Concluding Remarks
The main threats to the biodiversity hotspots are human population growth, economic
development and invasive alien species.
Prioritisation schemes require regular updating (preferably by the original proponents of
the scheme) because circumstances change. All the forms of prioritisation considered in
this chapter provide indications of where conservation effort is necessary. This is good
but it must be translated into action on the ground before conservation benefits.
It is not a good idea to waste money (and time) on developing new prioritisation and/or
representation schemes instead of actually conserving biodiversity by creating protected
areas or reducing the impacts of the locals on protected areas by providing alternative
options to meet the local needs. New prioritisation and/or representation schemes are
especially wasteful of resources if other such schemes already exist (see Jepson &
Whittaker (2002)).
Jepson & Whittaker (2002) point out that new schemes, like the ecoregions, may weaken
conservation efforts by implying that the science conservation efforts were based on is
somehow inferior. Coarse scale groupings could suggest that all areas within an
ecoregion are of equal value (Jepson & Whittaker 2002) and thus allow governments an
excuse not to protect areas that are potentially lucrative if exploited. While
Wikramanayake et al. (2002) feel that any conservation planner who is competent will
meaningfully subdivide the ecoregions, I feel that they miss the point that conservation
planners are not usually the ultimate decision makers. Conservation is seldom a high
priority to governments or governing bodies (the people with the power to make the
conservation decisions) – consider Jepson & Whittaker’s (2002) comment on the removal
of economically valuable areas of lowland habitat from proposed reserves in Indonesia
before the reserves were proclaimed. As the Jepson & Whittaker (2002) example shows,
prioritisation and representation are not enough to bring about conservation. Other
actions (e.g. lobbying and education) are required to achieve conservation.
Last slide
I hope that you found chapter 7 informative.
The picture shows a male orange breasted sunbird (Nectarinia violacea or Anthobaphes
violacea).
Summary for interest
Table A1: total numbers of species found in the 34 terrestrial hotspots.
Hotspot
Plants
Mam-
Birds
Reptiles
mals
Amphi-
Fresh
Human
bians
Water
Density
Fish
(/km2)
The California Floristic Province
3488
157
340
69
46
73
121
The Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
5300
328
524
384
200
84
32
Mesoamerica
17 000
440
1113
692
555
509
72
The Caribbean
13 000
89
604
502
170
161
155
The Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
11 000
285
890
327
203+
251
51
The Tropical Andes
30 000+
570
1724
610
981
380
37
3892
68
226
41
41
43
37
The Atlantic Forest
20 000
264
934
311
456
350
87
The Cerrado
10 000
195
607
225
186
800
13
The Succulent Karoo
6356
75
226
94
21
26
4
The Cape Floristic Province
9000
91
323
100
46
34
51
The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
8100
194
541
209
72
73
70
13 000
155
310
384
230
164
32
4000
198
633
254
88
219
52
The Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
The Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
Table A1 cont.: total numbers of species found in the 34 terrestrial hotspots.
Hotspot
Plants
Mam-
Birds
Reptiles
mals
Amphi-
Fresh
Human
bians
Water
Density
Fish
(/km2)
The Horn of Africa
5000
220
697
285
30
100
23
Eastern Afromontane
7598
490
1299
347
229
893
95
West African Forests
9000
320
785
210
221
512
137
22 500
226
489
230
79
216
111
Caucasus
6400
131
378
86
17
127
68
The Irano-Anatolian
6000
142
362
116
18
90
58
The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
5916
140
458
267
178
191
261
The Mountains of Central Asia
5500
143
489
59
7
27
42
The Himalayas
10 000
300
977
176
105
269
123
The Mountains of Southwest China
12 000
237
611
92
90
92
32
Indo-Burma
13 500
433
1266
522
286
1262
134
Sundaland
25 000
380
769
452
244
950
153
Wallacea
10 000
222
647
222
48
250
81
The Philippines
9253
167
535
237
89
281
273
Japan
5600
94
366
66
50
214
336
Polynesia-Micronesia
5330
16
292
64
3
96
59
The Mediterranean Basin
Table A1 cont.: total numbers of species found in the 34 terrestrial hotspots.
Hotspot
Plants
Mam-
Birds
Reptiles
mals
Amphi-
Fresh
Human
bians
Water
Density
Fish
(/km2)
The East Melanesian Islands
8000
86
360
117
42
52
13
New Caledonia
3270
9
105
70
0
85
11
New Zealand
2300
10
195
37
4
39
14
Southwest Australia
5571
59
285
177
32
20
5
Table A2: numbers of endemic species found in the 34 terrestrial hotspots.
Hotspot
Plants
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphi-
Fresh
bians
Water Fish
The California Floristic Province
2124
18
8
4
25
15
The Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
3975
6
22
37
50
18
Mesoamerica
2941
66
208
240
358
340
The Caribbean
6550
41
163
469
170
65
The Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
2750
11
110
98
30
115
15 000
75
579
275
673
131
The Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
1957
15
12
27
29
24
The Atlantic Forest
8000
72
144
94
282
133
The Cerrado
4400
14
17
33
28
200
The Succulent Karoo
2439
2
1
15
1
0
The Cape Floristic Province
6210
4
6
22
16
14
The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
1900
4
0
30
11
20
11 600
144
181
367
229
97
The Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
1750
11
11
53
6
32
The Horn of Africa
2750
20
24
93
6
10
Eastern Afromontane
2356
104
106
93
68
617
West African Forests
1800
67
75
52
85
143
The Tropical Andes
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
Table A2: numbers of endemic species found in the 34 terrestrial hotspots.
Hotspot
The Mediterranean Basin
Plants
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphi-
Fresh
bians
Water Fish
11 700
25
25
77
27
63
Caucasus
1600
18
1
20
3
12
The Irano-Anatolian
2500
10
0
12
2
30
The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
3049
18
35
174
130
139
The Mountains of Central Asia
1500
6
0
1
4
5
The Himalayas
3160
12
115
48
42
33
The Mountains of Southwest China
3500
5
2
15
8
23
Indo-Burma
7000
73
64
204
154
553
Sundaland
15 000
172
142
243
196
350
Wallacea
1500
127
262
99
33
50
The Philippines
6091
102
186
160
76
67
Japan
1950
46
13
28
44
52
Polynesia-Micronesia
3074
12
163
31
3
20
The East Melanesian Islands
3000
39
149
54
38
3
New Caledonia
2432
6
23
62
0
9
New Zealand
1865
3
86
37
4
25
Southwest Australia
2948
12
10
27
22
10
Table A3: numbers of studied species (maximum total 3235) and threat scores for the 10
marine hotspots.
Hotspot
Widespread
Endemic
Threat
Species
Species
Score
Western Caribbean
430
20
1.91
Eastern South Africa
542
30
2.36
Southern Mascarene Islands
746
16
2.45
The Red Sea
661
18
1.77
The Gulf of Guinea
33
45
2.61
The Cape Verde Islands
25
26
2.20
The Northern Indian Ocean
1053
31
2.22
The Sunda Islands
1430
13
2.53
The Philippines
1471
17
2.91
Southern Japan, Taiwan and Southern China
1187
75
2.21