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Chapter 2
Methods
Lecture PowerPoint
© W. W. Norton & Company, 2008
Introduction

Research methods — standard rules that social scientists
follow when trying to establish a causal relationship
between social elements
Quantitative
methods seek to
obtain information
about the social
world that is in, or
can be converted to,
numeric form.
2
Qualitative methods
attempt to collect
information about the
social world that
cannot be readily
converted to numeric
form.
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Introduction

3
Causality is the idea that a
change in one factor results in
a corresponding change in
another factor.
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The Basics

A deductive approach to research:
1)
2)
3)
4)
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Starts with a theory
Develops a hypothesis
Makes empirical observations
Analyzes the data collected through
observation to confirm, reject, or modify the
original theory
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The Basics

An inductive approach to research:
 Starts with empirical observation
 Then works to form a theory

5
Correlation exists when change is observed in
two things simultaneously.
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The Basics

6
Causation exists when a change in one factor
causes the change in the other factor.
 Sociologists conduct research to try to prove
causation.
 To prove causation, correlation and time order
is established and alternative explanations are
ruled out.
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The Basics

A dependent variable is the outcome that a
researcher is trying to explain.

An independent variable is a measured factor that
the researcher believes has a causal impact on the
dependent variable.
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The Basics
8

Hypothesis is a proposed relationship between two
variables – either null hypothesis or alternative
hypothesis.

Operationalization is the process by which a
researcher specifies the terms and methods that will
be used in a particular study.
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The Basics
9

Moderating variables are factors that affect the
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.

Mediating variables are factors that are positioned
between the independent and dependent variables but do
not affect the relationship between them.
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The Basics

10
Measures used to evaluate variables in a hypothesis
must be valid and reliable.
 Outcomes of a particular research study must be
able to be generalized to a larger population.
 Researchers must be aware of the effects they
have on the people, relationships, and processes
they are studying.
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The Basics

11
Feminist methodology
 Treats women’s experiences as legitimate
empirical and theoretical resources
 Promotes social science that may bring about
policy change to help women
 Is as conscious of the role of the researcher as
that of the subject(s) being studied.
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The Basics
Types of Data Collection Used in Social Research
Participant Observation
Experimentation
Interviews
Content Analysis
Survey Research
Historical Methods
Comparative Research
12
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Ethics of Social Research

13
Researchers must meet codified standards.
 These are often set by professional associations,
academic institutions, or research centers when
conducting studies.
 Researchers must guard against causing
physical, emotional, or psychological harm to
their subjects.
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Ethics of Social Research

Informed consent and voluntary participation are
guidelines researchers use to ensure subjects know
they are participating in a study and have voluntarily
chosen to participate.

Public sociology refers to the practice of using
sociological research, teaching, and service to reach a
wider (not solely academic) audience and to influence
society.
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Concept Quiz
1.
Which of the following describes the deductive approach to research?
a)
A researcher makes empirical observations, and based on these
observations he or she develops a theory.
A researcher develops several hypotheses to explain a correlation he or
she has observed between two factors.
A researcher establishes causation and then develops a theory to explain
it.
A researcher starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, makes observations,
and then analyzes the data to confirm, reject, or refine the original theory.
b)
c)
d)
15
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Concept Quiz
2.
What is a moderating variable?
a) A factor that is positioned between the independent and dependent
variables but does not affect the relationship between them
b) A factor that affects only the independent variable in a hypothesis
c) A factor that can replace the dependent variable in a hypothesis
d) A factor that affects the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables
16
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Concept Quiz
3. A thermometer that consistently gives readings that are
five degrees cooler than the actual temperature is _____.
a)
b)
c)
d)
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valid but not reliable
reliable but not valid
neither reliable nor valid
both reliable and valid
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Concept Quiz
4. Which of the following data collection methods are
commonly used in social research?
a) Audit study, surveys, interviews
b) Historical methods, participant observation, case studies
c) Natural experiment, double-blind study, comparative
research
d) Content analysis, census, panel survey
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Concept Quiz
5. Social research that tries to engage a nonacademic
audience and influence society is often referred to as
_______.
a)
b)
c)
d)
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public sociology
macrosociology
feminist sociology
qualitative sociology
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Figure 2.1 | The Research Cycle
Figure 2.2 | The Charge of Spuriousness
Figure 2.3 | The Research Process (pt. 1)
Figure 2.3 | The Research Process (pt. 2)
Figure 2.4 | Percentage of Applicants
Who Received Callbacks