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The Road to Revolution
Chapter Seven
Main Theme #1
The American Revolution occurred because the American colonists, who had long been
developing a strong sense of autonomy and self-government, furiously resisted British
attempts to impose tighter imperial controls and higher taxes after the end of the French
and Indian War in 1763. The sustained conflict over political authority and taxation,
enhanced by American agitators and British bungling, gradually moved Americans from
asserting rights within the British Empire to openly warring with the mother country.
Additional Notes
☺ The American War for Independence was a military conflict from 1775 to 1783, but
the American Revolution was a deeper transformation of thought and loyalty that
began when the first settlers arrived in America and finally led to the colonies’
political separation from Britain.
☺ One source of long term conflict was the tension between the considerable freedom
and self-government the colonists enjoyed in the American wilderness and their
participation in the British Empire’s mercantile system.
☺ While the British mercantile system actually provided economic benefits to the
colonies along with certain liabilities, its limits on freedom and patronizing goal of
keeping America in a state of perpetual economic adolescence stirred growing
resentment.
☺ The short-term movement toward the War of Independence began with the British
attempts to impose higher taxes and tighter imperial controls after the French and
Indian War.
☺ To the British these were reasonable measures, under which the colonists would
simply bear a fair share of the costs of the empire. To the colonists, however, the
measures constituted attacks on fundamental rights.
☺ Through well-orchestrated agitation and boycotts, the colonists forced repeal of the
Stamp Act of 1765 as well as the Townshend Acts that replaced it, except for the
symbolic tax on tea.
☺ A temporary lull in conflict between 1770 and 1773 ended with the Boston Tea Party,
conducted by a network of Boston agitators reacting to the Massachusetts governor’s
attempt to enforce the law.
☺ In response to the Tea Party, the British imposed the harsh Intolerable Acts (Coercive
Acts), coincidentally passing the Quebec Act at the same time. These twin actions
aroused ferocious American resistance throughout the colonies, and led directly to the
calling of the First Continental Congress and the clash of arms at Lexington and
Concord.
☺ As the two sides prepared for war, the British enjoyed the advantages of a larger
population, a professionally trained militia, and much greater economic strength.
☺ The greatest American asset was the deep commitment of those Patriots who were
ready to sacrifice for their rights.
Items to Think About
1. Was the American Revolution inevitable? Could America have gradually developed
independence within the British Commonwealth, as Canada did later, rather than
engaging in a violent revolt?
2. Were all the American grievances really justified, or were the British actually being
more reasonable than most Americans have traditionally believed?
3. What was the Revolutionary movement at its core really all about? The amount of
taxation? The right of Parliament to tax? The political corruption of Britain and the
virtue of America? The right of a king to govern America? The colonies’ growing
sense of national identity apart from Britain? Was the revolution truly a radical
overturning of government and society – the usual definition of “revolution” – or
something far more limited or even “conservative” in its defense of traditional rights?
4. In 1775 which side would a neutral observer have expected to win - Britain or the
colonies? Why?
5. What roles do the patriotic groups like the Sons and Daughters of Liberty in the
Revolutionary movement? How effective was their use of boycotts, agitation,
propaganda and sometimes violence in keeping the movement alive, even in times of
improved relations?
6. What was the role of African Americans and Indians in the Revolution? Given the
chose, which side would you have joined? Why?
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explain the deeply rooted historical factors that moved America toward independence
from Britain.
describe the theory and practice of mercantilism and explain why Americans resented
it.
explain why Britain attempted tighter control and taxation of Americans after 1763
and why Americans resisted these efforts.
describe the major British efforts to impose taxes and tighten control of the colonies.
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describe the methods of colonial resistance that forced the repeal of all taxes except
tax on tea.
explain how sustained agitation and resistance to the tea tax led to the Intolerable
Acts and the outbreak of war.
assess the balance of forces between the British and the American rebels as the two
sides prepared for war.
1. John Hancock
2. Lord North
3. George Grenville
4. Samuel Adams
5. Charles Townshend
11. mercantilism
12. “No taxation w/out…
13. nonimportation agreement
18. Board of Trade
19. Sons of Liberty
20. Quebec Act
21. Navigation Acts
22. Declaratory Act
23. First Continental Congress
24. Sugar Act
25. Townshend Acts
26. Quartering Act
27. Boston Massacre
6. John Adams
7. Crispus Attucks
8. Marquis de Lafayette
9. King George III
10. Baron von Steuben
14. “royal veto”
15. internal/external taxation
16. “virtual representation”
17. boycott
28. The Association
29. Stamp Act
30. committees of correspondence
31. Hessians
32. admirality courts
33. Boston Tea Party
34. Loyalists
35. Stamp Act Congress
36. Intolerable Acts
37. “Continental”
America Secedes from the Empire
Chapter 8
Main Theme #1
When hostilities began in 1775m the colonists were still fighting for their rights as British
citizens within the empire, but in 1776 they declared their independence based on a
proclamation of universal, “self-evident” truths. Inspired by revolutionary idealism, they
also fought for an end to monarchy and the establishment of a free republic.
Main Theme #2
A combination of Washington’s generalship and British bungling in 1776-1777 prevented
a quick British victory and brought French assistance, which enabled the Patriots to
achieve victory after several more years of struggle.
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Additional Items of Note
Even after Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress did not want to
pursue Independence.
The Congress’s most important action was selecting George Washington as military
commander.
After further armed clashes, George III formally proclaimed the colonists in rebellion,
and Thomas Paine’s Common Sense finally persuaded Americans to fight for
independence as well as liberty.
Paine and other leaders promoted the Revolution as an opportunity for selfgovernment by the people, though more conservative republicans wanted to retain
political hierarchy without monarchy.
Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence deepened the meaning of the struggle by
proclaiming its foundation in self-evident and universal human rights.
The committed Patriots, only a minority of the American population, had to fight both
Loyalists and the British.
Loyalists were strongest among conservatives, city-dwellers, and Anglicans, while
Patriots were strongest in New England and among Presbyterians and
Congregationalists.
In the first phase of the war, Washington stalemated the British, who botched their
plan to quash the rebellion quickly at Saratoga.
When the French and others then aided the American, the Revolutionary War became
a world war.
American fortunes fell badly in 1780 – 1781, but the colonial army in the South held
on until Cornwallis stumbled into French-American trap at Yorktown.
Lord North’s ministry collapsed in Britain, and American negotiator achieved an
extremely generous settlement from the Whigs.
describe how America moved from engaging in military hostilities with Britain even
while proclaiming loyalty to declaring its independence.
explain the principle ideas of “republicanism” developed by Thomas Paine and other
American leaders.
explain the specific reasons and general principles used in the Declaration of
Independence to justify America’s separation.
explain why some Americans remained loyal to Britain and what happened to them
during and after the Revolution.
describe how the British attempt to crush the Revolution quickly was foiled,
especially by the Battle of Saratoga.
describe the military and political obstacles Washington and his generals had to
overcome before the final victory at Yorktown.
describe the terms of the Treaty of Paris and explain how America was able to
achieve such a stunning diplomatic victory.
1. George Washington
2. William Howe
3. Nathanael Greene
4. Benedict Arnold
5. John Burgoyne
6. Charles Cornwallis
7. Thomas Paine
8. Barry St. Leger
9. George Rogers Clark
19. mercenaries
20. natural rights
22. Second Continental Congress
23. Common Sense
24. Declaration of Independence
10. Richard Henry Lee
11. Horatio Gates
12. John Paul Jones
13. Thomas Jefferson
14. Marquis de Lafayette
15. Admiral de Grasse
16. Patrick Henry
17. Comte do Rochambeau
18. John Jay
21. privateering
25. Loyalists/Tories
26. Patriots/Whigs
27. Treaty of Paris of 1783
Questions to Ponder
1. How had the colonists gradually developed very strong ideas of “rights” and “liberty”
that differed considerably from the meaning of those terms within the context of the
18th century British Empire.
2. If the Parliament would have allowed for colonial representation for taxation
purposes, do you think the war could have been averted?
3. How did patriotic groups like the Sons and Daughters of Liberty use boycotts,
agitation, propaganda, and sometimes violence or near-violence to keep the
Revolutionary movement alive, even in periods of seemingly improved relations?
4. What were the relative strengths and weaknesses of the two sides by focusing on the
typical military representatives: the British redcoats and the America minutemen
(militia)?
5. How did Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence change the meaning of
the fighting?
6. What was radical and new about the Declaration of Independence, and what was old
and traditional? What did statements like “all men are created equal” mean in their
historical context, and what did they come to mean later?
7. Why would Washington and his generals essentially pursue a “defensive” strategy in
the early phase of the war, while the British had to try for a quick victory? Why was
the Battle of Saratoga so crucial politically as well as militarily?
8. What was the political dimension of the war that existed between Patriots and
Loyalists? How might the American military effort work to swing the neutral
population to the Patriot cause? What was the political dimension that existed
between the Colonies and France?
9. Was military strategy or politics the key to American victory at war? How did the
two coincide?
10. Did the Loyalists deserve to be persecuted and driven out of the country? Why have
the Loyalists been largely forgotten in American historical memory? Do they deserve
to be better known? Do you agree with the text that they were often “tragic” figures?
11. Did the Loyalists act primarily out of conviction and feelings of patriotism toward
Britain, or out of self-interest?
12. If you had been an African-American, free or slave, in 1776, would you have tried to
back the Patriot cause of the Loyalist cause? Why?
13. What has the Revolution meant to later generations of Americans, including our own?
Do we still think of the United States as a revolutionary nation, why or why not?
The Confederation and the Constitution
Chapter Nine
Main Theme #1
The American Revolution was not a radical transformation like the French or Russian
revolutions, but it did produce political innovations and some social change in the
direction of greater equality and democracy.
Main Theme #2
The federal Constitution represented a moderately conservative reaction against
democratic and decentralizing effects of the Revolution and the Articles of
Confederation. In effect, it embedded the revolutionary ideals of liberty and popular
government within a strong framework designed to advance national identity and
interests against the dangers of fragmentation and disorder.
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Additional Items
The American Revolution did not overturn the social order, but it did produce
substantial changes in social customs, political institutions, and ideas bout society
and government.
Changes included…
1.
separation of church and state in some places.
2.
the abolition of slavery on the North.
3.
written political constitutions.
4.
shift in political power from the eastern seaboard toward the frontier.
The first weak national government, the Articles of Confederation, was unable to
exercise real authority, although it did successfully deal with the western lands issue
(see the Land Ordinances).
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The Confederation’s weaknesses in handling foreign policy, commerce and the
Shay’s Rebellion spurred the movement to alter the Articles.
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Instead of revising the Articles, the well-off delegates to the Constitutional
Convention created a permanent charter to a whole new government.
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In a series of compromises, the convention produced a plan that provided for…
1.
a vigorous central government.
2.
a strong executive.
3.
and protection for property.
all while upholding the republican principles and states’ rights.
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The pro-Constitution Federalists, generally representing wealthier and more
commercial forces, frightened other groups who feared that the new government
would undermine their rights and interests.
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The Federalists met their strongest opposition from Anti-Federalists in Virginia and
New York, but though effective organization (see number of newspapers
supporting) and argument (see the Federalist Papers), as well promised to
incorporate a bill of rights into the document, they succeeded in getting the
Constitution ratified.
1. explain the political and social movement toward “equality” that flourished after the
Revolution, and understand why certain social and racial inequalities remained in
place.
2. describe the government of the Articles of Confederation and indicate its
achievements and failures.
3. explain the crucial role of Shay’ Rebellion in sparking the movement for a new
Constitution.
4. describe the basic intentions and ideas of the Founding Fathers, and how they
incorporated their fundamental principles into the Constitution.
5. grasp the central concerns that motivated the antifederalists, and indicate their social,
economic, and political differences with the federalists.
6. describe the process of ratification of the Constitution, and why the federalists won.
7. indicate the ways in which the new Constitutional government was “conservative,”
yet preserved the central principles of the American Revolution.
Disestablish
Chattel
Ratification
Speculators (speculation)
Territory
Requisition
Anarchy
emancipation
abolitionist
bill of rights
township
annex
foreclosure
bicameral/unicameral
1. Abigail Adams
2. Daniel Shays
5. primogeniture
6. federation
7. checks and balances
8. sovereignty
9. “mobocracy”
10. consent of the governed
3. Alexander Hamilton
4. James Madison
11. republicanism
12. states’ rights
13. popular sovereignty
14. confederation
15. anarchy
Society of the Cincinnati
“Great Compromise”
Articles of Confederation
Electoral College
Land Ordinance of 1785
“three-fifths compromise”
Northwest Ordinance
antiferderalists
Shay’s Rebellion
Federalists
“large-state plan”
Constitution of the United States
The Federalist
Questions to Ponder
1. How did the revolutionary American ideals of natural human rights, equality, and
freedom form governmental tyranny affect developments in the immediate postRevolutionary period (1783-1789)?
2. How were women and African-Americans affected by the ideas of the American
Revolution? Why was slavery abolished in the North but not in the entire nation?
3. Which problems of the post-Revolutionary period and weaknesses of the Articles of
Confederation lead to the adoption of a new Constitution?
4. What were the basic features of the new Constitution, and how did they differ from
the government under the Articles of Confederation?
5. Who were the federalists and the ant-federalists, what were the issues that divided
them, and why did the federalists win?
6. Should the Constitution be seen as a conservative reaction to the Revolution, an
enshrinement of revolutionary principles, or both? What was most truly original
about the Constitution?
7. In Chapter 4 and 5, the basic structure of early American society and economy was
described. How was that structure changed by the political developments during the
period after the Revolution? How did the Constitution itself reflect issues concerning
social structure, economic equality, and the distribution of power?
Launching the New Ship of State 1789-1800
Chapter 10
Main Theme #1
Led by Washington and Hamilton, the first administration under the Constitution
overcame various difficulties and firmly established the political and economic functions
of the new federal government.
Main Theme #2
The cabinet debate over Hamilton’s financial measure expanded into a wider political
conflict between Hamiltonian Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans – the first
political parties in America.
Main Theme #3
The French Revolution created a severe ideological and political division over foreign
policy between Federalists and Republicans. The foreign-policy crisis coincided with
domestic political divisions that culminated in the bitter election of 1800m but in the end
power passed peacefully from Federalist to Republican.
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Additional Points
The fledgling government faced considerable difficulties and skepticism about its
durability, especially since traditional political theory held that large-scale republics
were bound to fail.
Washington brought credibility to the new government and his cabinet, led by
Hamilton, strengthened its political and economic functions.
Hamilton’s achievements…
1. program of funding the national debt
2. assuming state debts
3. imposing customs and excise tax
4. establishing a Bank of the United States
The Bank was the most controversial part of Hamilton’s financial system because it
raised constitutional issues.
Opposition came from Jefferson and his followers, asking “was it allowed under the
Constitution?”
As the French Revolution changed from moderation to radicalism, it intensified the
ideological divisions between the pro-French Jeffersonians and the pro-British
Hamiltonians.
Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 angered Republicans, who wanted
America to aid Revolutionary France.
Washington’s policy was tested by the British, who routinely violated American
neutrality (impressments of soldiers).
In order to avoid war, Washington endorsed John Jay’s Treaty, further outraging the
Republicans and France.
After the humiliating XYZ Affair (loan France $2 mil, give $250,000 to Tallyrand),
the U.S. came to the brink of war with France, but Adams sacrificed his political
popularity and divided his party by negotiating peace.
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These foreign policy disagreements embittered domestic politics: Federalists
passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, to which Jefferson and Madison responded with
the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions.
1. indicate why George Washington was pivotal to inaugurating the new federal
government.
2. describe the various means Alexander Hamilton used to put the federal government in
a sound financial footing.
3. explain how the conflict over Hamilton’s policies led to the emergence of the first
political parties.
4. describe the polarizing effects of the French Revolution on American foreign policy
and politics from 1790 to 1800.
5. explain why Washington negotiated the conciliatory Jay’s Treaty with the British and
why it provoke Jefferson’s outrage.
6. describe the causes of the undeclared war with France and explain Adam’s decision
to move toward peace rather than declare war.
7. describe the poisonous political atmosphere that produced the Alien and Sedition
Acts and the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions.
8. describe the contrasting membership and principles of the Hamiltonian Federalists
and the Jeffersonian Republicans.
Census
Cabinet
Fiscal
Excise
Medium of exchange
Impress
Witch-hunt
Nullification
public debt
circuit court
assumption
stock
despotism
assimilation
compact
1. John Adams
2. Thomas Jefferson
3. Alexander Hamilton
4. Henry Knox
5. John Jay
10. funding at par
11. strict construction
12. assumption
13. implied powers
14. tariff
19. cabinet
20. Bank of the United States
21. Bill of Rights
22. French Revolution
23. Jay’s Treaty
24. Convention of 1800
6.
7.
8.
9.
Citizen Genệt
Anthony Wayne
Talleyrand
Matthew Lyon
15. agrarian
16. excise tax
17. compact theory
18. nullification
29. Tenth Amendment
30. Pinckney Treaty
31. Alien and Sedition Acts
32. Battle of Fallen Timbers
33. Farewell Address
34. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions
25. Neutrality Proclamation
26. Whiskey Rebellion
27. Ninth Amendment
28. Federalists
35. Jeffersonian Republicans
36. Judiciary Act of 1789
37. Treaty of Greenville
38. XYZ Affair
Questions to Answer
1. What were the most important issues facing the new federal government, and how did
the Washington administration address them?
2. Explain the purpose and significance of the Bill of Rights. Did these Ten
Amendments significantly weaken federal authority, or actually enhance it.
3. What were Hamilton’s basic economic and political goals, and how did he attempt to
achieve them?
4. What were the philosophical and political disagreements between Hamilton and
Jefferson that led to the creation of the first American political parties?
5. What were the basic goals of Washington’s and Adams’s foreign policies, and how
successful were they in achieving them?
6. How did the divisions over foreign policy create the poisonous political atmosphere
that produced both the Alien and Sedition Acts and the Kentucky and Virginia
resolutions?
7. Although Federalists and Republicans engaged in extremely bitter political struggles
during this period, they both retained their basic commitment to republican
government, and at the end of the decade, the Federalists peacefully handed over
power to the Republicans. What characteristics of American politics and society
enabled them to keep their conflict within bounds?
The Triumphs and Travails ofJeffersonian Democracy, 1800-1812
Chapter 11
Thomas Jefferson
Louisiana Purchase
Napoleon Bonaparte
Toussaint L’Ouverture
Strict interpretation (Constitution)
Lewis and Clark expedition
John Marshall
Judicial review
Marbury v. Madison
Aaron Burr
“Quids”
Barbary Pirates
impressments
Chesapeake-Leopard affair
Embargo Act (1807)
James Madison
Nonintercourse Act (1808)
Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)
Tecumseh; Prophet
William Henry Harrison
Battle of Tippecanoe
war hawks
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Neutrality
James Monroe
Robert Livingston
Samuel Chase
Patronage
Economic coercion
Battle of Austerlitz
Orders in Council
“midnight judges”
War of 1812
Albert Gallatin
Zebulon Pike
John Quincy Adams
impeachment
Judiciary Act of 1789
Judiciary Act of 1801
“Revolution of 1800”
mosquito fleet
Chapter 11 and 12 Notes
♠ Election of 1800 – much animosity between Federalists and Republicans. Jefferson
saw need for smooth transition from Federalist controlled govt. to Republican.
Jefferson remarked: "but every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle.We
have called by different names brethren of the same principles. We are all Republicans.
We are all Federalists."
♠ Under Jefferson’s leadership (and close friend James Madison) America…
1. experienced peaceful leadership change.
2. expanded territorially.
3. survived another war
4. strengthened national and democratic spirit.
they also had to deal with…
5. slavery.
6. treatment of Native Americans.
7. those loyal to local interests.
I. Jefferson’s Presidency
A. Attempted to win allegiance and trust of Federalists by
1. maintaining National Bank and Hamilton’s debt repayment play.
2. carried on neutrality policies of Washington and Adams.
B. Retained loyalty of Republicans
1. adhered to Party’s guiding principle of limited central government
2. reduced the size of military
3. eliminated many federal jobs (held by Federalists)
4. repealed the excise tax (Whisky)
5. lowered national debt
6. only Republicans were named to Cabinet (avoid division, i.e. Washington)
II. Louisiana Purchase: #1 most important achievement
A. Size = unexplored tract of western land in which flowed the Mississ. and Missou
Rivers.
1. At the mouth of the Mississippi was most valuable property in terms of
commerce – New Orleans.
a. many years, Louisiana and New Orleans owned by Spain
b. 1800 – Napoleon secretly forced Spain to cede France the land with hopes
of restoring the French empire.
c. 1803 – Napoleon lost interest in the plan
1. Needed to concentrate resources on war with England
2. Rebellion in Santo Domingo (Haiti) by Toussaint L’Ouverature which
resulted in heavy French losses.
B. U.S. interest in the Mississippi River.
1. settlers in western frontier (OH, KY, IN) depended on the Mississippi for
economic survival.
a. alarmed in 1802, Spain closed the port to Americans
b. revoked Pinckney’s Treaty (1795) and right of deposit which allowed for
American farmers tax free use of the Mississippi.
2. Jefferson feared entanglement in European affairs if Spain had control near
American soil.
C. Negotiations
1. Sent Monroe and Livingston to France
a. Jefferson allowed for $10 million for New Orleans and land between it
and Florida.
b. if they failed with France, they were instructed to go to Britain to negotiate
2. Napoleon’s Ministers needed $ for war against Britain
a. offered to sell New Orleans and entire Louisiana territory for $15 mil
b. American ministers went beyond allotted amount and accepted offer
D. Constitutional Predicament
1. Jefferson and most Americans strongly approve
2. but Jefferson was committed to “strict” interpretation of Constitution (see
National Bank)
3. no clause explicitly allowed for purchase of foreign land
4. submits purchase to Senate saying lands could be added to the U.S. as an
application of President’s power to make treaties
5. Republican majority Senate quickly ratified
E. Consequences
1. doubled the size of the U.S.
2. removed foreign presence from nation’s borders
3. guaranteed the extension of western frontier to lands beyond Miss. River
4. strengthened Jefferson’s hopes for a country whose future was based on
agrarian society, not Hamilton’s vision of urban & industry
5. increased Jefferson’s popularity, showed Federalists to be weak and
“sectionalist” (New England - based)
F. Lewis and Clark
1. even before Purchase, Jefferson persuaded Congress to fund exploration by
Lewis and Clark
a. purchase greatly increased importance
b. from St. Louis (1804) – crossed the Rockies, reached Oregon coast of
Pacific, turned back and returned (1806)
2. Benefits
a. increased geographic and scientific knowledge of unknown territory
b. strengthened claims to Oregon territory
c. improved relations with Native American tribes
d. developed maps and land routes for fur trappers and future settlers
III. John Marshall & Supreme Court: Only Federalist power left after sweeping
Republican victory. They were appointed by Washington and Adams and were not
subject to recall or removal except by impeachment.
A. John Marshall: Jefferson’s cousin from VA
1. appointed during Adams’ last months of office
a. served fro 34 years
b. exerted strong influence of Court (similar to Washington and executive)
c. strengthened Court power often at expense of states’ rights
B. Marbury v. Madison (1803) – First major case
1. Jefferson wanted to block Federalist appointments made at last minute by
Adams
2. ordered Sec. of State Madison to not deliver commissions to “midnight
appointments (judges)”
3. William Marbury sued for his commission
4. Went to Supreme Court for review
5. Verdict
a. Marshall ruled Marbury gets commission according to Judiciary Act of
1789
b. but Judiciary Act was unconstitutional
1. law passed by Congress had given them more power and jurisdiction
than the Constitution allowed
2. therefore Marbury could not get his commission
c. Marshall sacrificed a small Federalist gain for larger, long-term judicial
victory
d. established judicial review
1. Supreme Court would exercise power to decide whether act of
Congress or President is allowed in Constitution
2. could now overrule actions of other branches
C. Judicial impeachments
1. Jefferson tried other methods of overturning Federalist measures and
appointments
a. suspended Alien and Sedition Acts
b. released those jailed under Acts
c. supported campaign of impeachment of Federalist judges
2. Samuel Chase: Supreme Court Justice
a. Republican-controlled House impeached for speaking against Jefferson
b. Senate acquitted, finding no evidence of “high crimes”
IV. Jefferson’s Re-election (1804) Received all but 14/176 electoral votes. Bigger
difficulties: Plots by former VP Aaron Burr, opposition in Republican Party
(“Quids”) who accused him of abandoning Republican ideals, and foreign troubles
with Napoleonic Wars in Europe
A. Aaron Burr: break up of Union and Hamilton Duel
1. Republican caucus (closed meeting) decided not to nominate him for 2nd term
of VP
2. Federalist Conspiracy
a. secretly formed political pact with radical New England Federalists
1. planned to win governship of NY in 1804
2. unite NY with New England states
3. all would secede from the nation
b. most Federalists followed Hamilton, not Burr, who was defeated in
election; conspiracy over
3. Duel with Hamilton
a. angered by insult, challenged Hamilton
b. shot and killed the last great Federalist leader
4. Treason and trial (1806)
a. Burr turned westward with plan to take Mexico from Spain and unite
Louisiana under his rule
b. Jefferson learned of plan, orders Burr’s arrest and trial for treason
c. Chief Justice Marshall (no fan of Jefferson) gets Burr acquitted due to lack
of witness to any “overt act”
V. Difficulties Abroad: Jefferson tries to avoid war, rejecting idea of permanent alliance
A. Barbary Pirates and North African Coast
1. Washington and Adams had agreed to pay for seized American merchant
ships to Barbary governments
2. Ruler (pasha) of Tripoli, demanded higher tribute from Jefferson
3. rather than pay, Jefferson sent small fleet of U.S. naval ship to Mediterranean
4. sporadic fighting lasted 4 years (1801-1805)
5. did not achieve decisive victory but gained respect for U.S. trading vessels in
Mediterranean waters
B. Challenges to neutrality: Napoleonic Wars affected U.S. economy
1. France and Britain attempt to block the other’s ports
a. regular seizure of ships of “neutrals” and took cargo
b. chief offender was Britain since they its navy dominated Atlantic
c. Impressment was most infuriating practice
2. Chesapeake – Leopard Affair (1807)
a. off coast of Virginia. Leopard (British) fired on Chesapeake (American)
1. 3 killed, 4 “impressed” into British navy
2. high anti-British sentiment = war cries
b. Jefferson resorted to diplomacy and economic pressure
C. Embargo Act (1807): Alternative to War
1. prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to foreign ports
a. hoped that Britain would quit violating rights of neutral nations rather than
lose money in trade
2. backfired: brought much greater economic loss to U.S. than to Britain
a. British determined to control seas at all cost
b. substituted American for South American goods
3. devastated American economy, especially merchant ships and New England
ship building (hence possible ideas for Burr’s secession plans)
4. repealed in 1807, although it allowed for trade with everyone but France and
Britain
VI. Madison’s Presidency: Jefferson believed in Washington’s 2 term limit, nominated
Sec. of State James Madison. Election of 1808: Good credentials (writing and
ratifying Constitution). Worked tirelessly in developing Republican Party. But, weak
public speaker, stubborn, lacked Jefferson’s political skills. Was able to defeat
Federalist choice C.C. Pinckney but Republicans lost seats in Congress from
Embargo fallout.
A. Commercial warfare – same European problems as Jefferson’s 2nd term. Finally
consented to war
1. Nonintercourse Act (1809): America can trade with all countries but England
and France
2. Macon’s Bill #2 (1810)
a. to prevent further loss, Congressional member Nathaniel Macon
introduced a bill that said if either France or Britain formally agreed to
U.S. neutral rights, we would prohibit trade with that nation’s foe.
3. Napoleon’s Deception (1811): Upon hearing plan, agrees. We embargo trade
with Britain, but Napoleon continued seizing our ships
VII. War of 1812: pressure for war came from two directions (the continued violation
of U.S. rights at sea and trouble with British on the western frontier)
A. Free seas and trade: Americans tended to side with French (revolution ideas,
British during the American Revolution, and British control of seas with
impressments.
B. Frontier Pressures: struggles for more land, British, Spanish, Native Americans
all in the way.
1. Shawnee Brothers – Tecumseh (the Warrior) and Prophet (religious leader)
attempted to unite all tribes east of the Mississippi River
2. White settlers became suspicious and persuade governor of Indiana, General
Henry Harrison to take aggressive action
a. Battle of Tippecanoe (1811): Harrison destroyed the Shawnee
headquarters and ended Tecumseh’s effort at an Indian Confederacy
b. British provided limited aid to Tecumseh, but Americans on frontier
blamed them for rebellion
C. War Hawks: Congressional election of 1810
1. New, young Republicans from frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio)
2. Known as War Hawks for wanting war with Britain while gaining power in
House of Representatives
3. Henry Clay (Kentucky) and John C. Calhoun (South Carolina) argued that
war with Britain was only way to defend U.S. honor, would gain Canada, and
destroy Native American resistance
D. Declaration of War
1. British delays in meeting U.S. demands over neutral rights plus political
pressure from War Hawks weigh heavy on Madison
2. Ironically, the British government agreed to suspend its naval blockade (June
1812), but news reached Congress after declaring war
E. A Divided Nation: PA and VT joined southern and western states vs. NY, NJ,
and New England states
1. Election of 1812: Republican Madison elected over DeWitt Clinton (NY) of
the Federalist Party
2. Opposition for war called it “Mr. Madison’s War” and the work of the War
Hawks in Congress
a. most outspoken were (1) New England merchants
1. they were making profits after Embargo Act was repealed
2. viewed “impressments” as minor inconvenience
3. had Protestant ties to England, not Catholic French
b. Federalist politicians
1. opposed all Republican actions
2. saw Madison as trying to conquer Florida and Canada to spread
Republican control
c. “Quids” or “Old Republicans”
1. Madison was violating classic Republican commitment to limited
federal power and maintenance of peace
VIII.
Military Defeats and Naval Victories: Facing Britain’s overwhelming naval
power, Madison’s military strategists banked on (1) Napoleon’s continued Euro
success and (2) U.S. land campaign in Canada.
A. Invasion of Canada (1812)
1. American army poorly equipped
2. 3-pronged attack at Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain
3. easily repulsed by British
B. Naval Battles: Won victories through superior ship building, valorous seamen
(including African Americans)
1. “Old Ironsides” (1812): U.S. warship, the Constitution raised morale
by sinking a British ship off Nova Scotia
2. American privateers, spurred by patriotism and profit, captured numerous
British merchant ships
3. British navy created successful blockade off U.S. cost
4. Lake Erie (1813): #1 battle. Three hour long fight where Captain Oliver
Hazard Perry said “We have met the enemy and they are ours.”
a. opened way for Harrison’s military victory at the Thames River (near
Detroit) where Tecumseh was killed
b. 1814 U.S naval captain defeats British fleet on Lake Champlain, forces
British retreat and abandon plan to invade New York and New
England
C. Chesapeake Campaign (1814): Defeat of Napoleon enables the British to
increase forces in North America
1. Summer: British marched on Washington, D.C., set fire to the White
House, the Capitol, and government buildings
2. British attempt to take Baltimore
a. Ft. McHenry holds out after bombardment
b. Francis Scott Key’s “Star-Spangled Banner”
D. Southern Campaign
1. U.S. troops commanded by General Andrew Jackson
a. March 1814: Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Alabama), Jackson defeats
the Creek Nation
1. ends important British ally
2. opens new lands to white settlers
b. Battle of New Orleans (Jan 1815): Ends British attempt to control
Miss. River with forces of frontiersmen, free blacks, and Creoles. Was
fought when war was already over
E. Treaty of Ghent (1814): British were tired from Napoleonic Wars, Madison
knew U.S. could not achieve decisive victory. All met at Ghent, Belgium,
finalized peace plans Christmas Eve 1814
1. halt to fighting
2. the return of all conquer territory to prewar conditions
3. recognition of the prewar boundary between the U.S. and Canada
4. said nothing about what led to war (impressments, blockades)
F. Hartford Convention: During war, New England states came close to
secession
1. Radical Federalist from N.E. states pushed for an amendment to
Constitution to allow for secession. Met in Hartford, CT in 1814
2. it was rejected, but to limit growing power of Republicans in South and
West they adopted a proposal for a 2/3 Congress vote to declare war
3. right after the Convention ended, word of Jackson’s victory and end of
war
a. ended criticism of war
b. made Federalist look even more unpatriotic
G. War’s legacy: Madison felt it did nothing. It did, however…
1. gain U.S. respect after battle with world power
2. acceptance of Canada as northern neighbor and part of British empire
3. After talk of secession and disunion in New England, the Federalist part
ends as a national force
4. talk of nullification and succession sets precedent to be used by the South
VIII.
5. abandoned by the British, Native American tribes forced to give up large
amounts of land to white settlement
6. due to British blockade and lack of European goods, U.S. factories were
built, Americans took steps towards self-sufficiency
7. war heroes (Andrew Johnson and William Henry Harrison) will become
forefront political leaders
8. strong feeling of American nationalism and growing belief that U.S.’s
future is in the West and not in Europe
Era of Good Feelings: Election of 1816
James Monroe starts 2 terms of a time marked by a spirit of nationalism,
optimism, and goodwill. Federalists fade away, Republicans gain control of all
parts of U.S.
Negatives: Debates over tariffs, national bank, internal improvements and public
land sales. Also sectional tensions over slavery. Republican party will split in
two.
A. James Monroe: Fought in the Revolutionary War, suffered at Valley Forge.
Big time with the Virginia Republican Party, served as Jefferson’s Minister to
Great Britain and Madison’s Sec. of State. Continued Virginia Dynasty of
presidents.
1. 1816 election: Defeated Federalist candidate Rufus King 183 to 34
2. 1820 election: No more Federalist competition. Monroe won all electoral
voted but one
3. accomplished the acquisition of Florida, Missouri Compromise, and
Monroe Doctrine
B. Cultural Nationalism: New, younger nation looking West with little care for
Europe.
1. feeling of unlimited prosperity
2. patriotic themes from paintings to school books
a Gilbert Stuart, Charles Wilson Peale, and John Trumball
b. expansion of public school ideas (Noah Webster)
C. Economic Nationalism: Political movement to support the growth of the
nation’s economy.
1. subsidizing internal improvements (roads and canals)
2. protecting U.S. industries from European competition
a. Tariff of 1816 – raise rates on certain goods to protect U.S.
manufacturers from ruin. Afraid British would flood American
markets with products.
b. 1st protective tariff in U.S. history
1. opposed by New England who had little manufacturing
2. generally supported by South and West
D. Henry Clay’s American Plan System: Leader in the House of
Representatives, Clay creates a plan for advancing the nation’s economic
growth.
1. protective tariffs
a. promote American manufacturing
b. raise revenue to build a national transportation system of federally
constructed roads and canals
2. National Bank – keeps system running smoothly with national currency
3. The tariffs would benefit the East, internal improvements helped the
South, and Bank would help all.
4. Tariff was made (1816), Madison had charted the 2nd National Bank
5. Madison and Monroe did not believe the Constitution explicitly provided
for spending money on roads and canals, leaving it to the states.
E. Panic of 1819 – 1st major financial panic since ratification of the Constitution
1. 2nd National Bank tightened credit to try to control inflation, large increase
in unemployment, bankruptcies, and imprisonment for debt
2. Extremely harsh in West as land speculation placed many in debt. In 1819
the Bank of the United States foreclosed on large amounts of western
farmland.
F. Political changes – Federalist Party disappeared, was crushed in election of
1816 and failed to nominate a candidate in 1820
1. Changes in the Republican Party
a. some (John Randolph) tried to cling to old Republican ideals of
limited government and strict interpretation of the Constitution
b. a majority adopted what was once a Federalist program
1. maintaining a large army and navy
2. chartering of 2nd National Bank (Hamilton’s idea)
c. political factions and sectional differences became more intense during
Monroe’s second term. In 1824 election, 4 Republican candidates
would emerge and create 2 rival parties.
Chapter 12 Key Names, Events, and Terms
“Old Ironsides”
Battle of Lake Erie
Oliver Hazard Perry
Battle of the Thames River
Thomas MacDonough
Battle of Lake Champlain
Francis Scott Key’s “Star Spangled Banner” Andrew Jackson
Battle of Horseshoe Bend
Creek nation
Battle of New Orleans
Treaty of Ghent (1814)
Hartford Convention (1814)
Battle of Plattsburgh
Ohio fever
Washington Irving
James Fenimore Cooper
John C. Calhoun
John Quincy Adams
Daniel Webster
Era of Good Feelings
sectionalism
James Monroe
nationalism: cultural, economic
Tariff of 1816
protective tariff
Henry Clay: American System
Second Bank of the United States
Panic of 1819
John Marshall
Fletcher v. Peck
McCulloch v. Maryland
Dartmouth College v. Woodward
Gibbons v. Ogden
Implied powers
Missouri Compromise
Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)
Andrew Jackson
Monroe Doctrine (1823)
Russo-American Treaty (1824)
Tallmadge Amendment
Stephen Decatur
Treaty of 1818
Florida Purchase Treaty (1819)
Land Act of 1820
Westward Settlement and Missouri Compromise
Less than ten years after 1812, the population of west of the Appalachian Mountains had
doubled.
I. Reasons for westward movement during Madison and Monroe’s Administrations
A. Acquisition of Native American lands
1. Work of Harrison (Indiana)
2. Jackson (Florida and the South)
B. Economic pressures
1. Northwest – Embargo Act caused people to move
2. South – tobacco farmers needed new land to replace exhausted soil (AL, MS,
AR)
C. Improved transportation – building of roads and canals, steamboats, and railroads
D. Immigrants
1. excited by speculators offering cheap land
2. moved into Great Lakes and Ohio regions, Cumberland, Miss. River Valley
II. New Questions and Issues: For the West to gain power with less people (compared
with North and South), they made priorities
A. “Cheap Money” – easy credit from state banks rather than from the Bank of the
U.S.
B. Land made available at low prices from the government
C. Improved transportation to connect them with markets
III. Legislation Passed: Main question about power. Even though northern states had
more population = more House of Representatives, Senate was equal so southern
senators continued to block legislation that threatened their section. Missouri
applying for statehood would change that balance. 1st state to apply in the L.P. area
A. Tallmadge Amendment: James Tallmadge – NY (1819)
1. Prohibit further introduction of slaves into Missouri
2. required children of Missouri slaves to be emancipated at age 25
3. was defeated by southern senators who saw it as the first step in the northern
effort to abolish slaves in all states.
B. Clay’s Proposals – the Missouri Compromise
1. Missouri would be admitted as a slave holding state
2. Maine would be free
3. In the rest of L.P. Territory, north of the 36° line of latitude, slavery was
prohibited
4. Aftermath: sectional feelings subsided. The Missouri Compromise preserved
sectional balance for over 30 years. But in that time America began the
bigger argument of nationalism (loyalty to the Union) vs. sectionalism
(loyalty to the region)
IV. Foreign Affairs – Following War of 1812, U.S. took more aggressive, nationalistic
approach (Madison sent Stephen Decatur to Barbary coast 1815). Monroe and John
Quincy (JQ) Adams plan of actively advancing American interests while maintaining
peace.
A. Canada: Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)
1. Disarmament pact strictly limiting naval arms on Great Lakes
2. Limits on border fortifications
3. U.S. and Canada would become longest unfortified boundary in the World
B. Treaty of 1818 – U.S. and Britain
1. shared fishing rights off New Foundland
2. Joint occupation of Oregon territory for 10 years
3. setting northern limits of LP at 49th parallel, establishing the western U.S.
Canada border
C. Florida – During War of 1812, U.S. troops occupied western Florida, Spain
controlled the peninsula but had problems due to South American revolts. These
conditions allowed groups of Seminoles, runaway slaves, and white outlaws to
raid U.S. territory and sneak back to Florida. This gave Monroe and Jackson an
opportunity to invade Florida.
1. Jackson’s military campaign (1817) – Monroe gave Jackson orders to stop
raiders and follow them into Spanish West Florida if needed
a. (1818) Jackson followed and destroyed Seminole villages, hanged two
Seminole chiefs
b. captured Pensacola, drove out Spanish governor, hanged two British
traders accused of aiding the Seminoles
c. Sec. of State (JQ Adams) persuaded Monroe to get behind Jackson even
though he feared British and Spanish reaction
2. Florida Purchase Treaty (1819) – Facing U.S. taking Florida by force,
decided to get best possible terms
1. sold for $5 million (Florida and Oregon territory claims)
2. U.S. gives up territorial claims in Texas
D. Monroe Doctrine: After fall of Napoleon, a number of monarchies are restored
in Europe and have back-lashed against republican and democratic movements.
France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, all consider helping Spain regain control in
South America. Russia’s presence in Alaska makes U.S. nervous. U.S. and
Britain decide that they have a common interest in protecting North and South
America from European aggression.
1. British Initiative: British navy fear Spanish plans. British Foreign Sec.
George Canning suggested to U.S. Minister to London Richard Rush, a joint
Anglo-American warning to European powers not to intervene in South
America.
2. American Response: Monroe agreed with Canning, but Sec. of State JQ
Adams believed it would handcuff U.S.’s future expansion plans
a. if U.S. acted alone, Britain could be counted on to back us up
b. No European power would risk going to war in South America, especially
with the British fleet
3. the Doctrine (Dec. 1823)
“as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that
the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they
have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for
future colonization by any European powers.”
b. further declared u.s. was opposed to attempts by a European power to
interfere in the affairs of any republic in the western hemisphere
4. The Impact: Applauded by American public, but quickly forgotten as we
looked to domestic issues.
a. Canning was annoyed because it applied to all European nations,
including Britain
b. little significance at the time, but would be used by future presidents for
foreign policy toward Latin America.
The Rise of a Mass Democracy 1824 – 1840
Chapter 13
The Age of Jackson (1824-1840)
The era that saw the emergence of popular politics in the 1820s and the presidency of Andrew
Jackson (1829-1937) is often called the Age of the Common Man, or the Era of Jacksonian
Democracy. Questions to consider: Was Jackson a major molder of events, a political
opportunist exploiting the democratic ferment of the times, or merely a symbol of the era?
I.
Jacksonian Democracy: The changing politics of the Jackson years paralleled complex
social and economic changes
A. The Rise of a Democratic Society
1. Alexis de Tocqueville (1830s): 24 yr. old Frenchman was amazed at informal
manners and democratic attitudes of Americans. Found it difficult to distinguish
between classes
a. men and women of all classes ate together in hotels
b. rich and poor road same stagecoaches, steamboats, and later railcars.
c. equality becoming guiding principle of American society (that is of white males).
The idea of “self-made man”: equality of opportunity, in theory, would allow
young men of humble beginnings to rise as far as talent and industry would take
them.
B. Politics of the Common Man: Between 1824 and 1840 politics moved from rich
southern planters and northern merchants and into white males of lower and middle class.
1. votes cast for president: 350,000 (1824) to over 2.4 mil (1840
2. new state suffrage laws
3. changes in political parties and campaign methods, improved education, increases in
newspaper circulation
a. universal male suffrage: all white males
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
1. recently admitted slaves (Indiana – 1816, Illinois – 1818, Missouri –
1821) adopted state constitutions that allowed all white males to vote and
hold office
2. no religious or property ownership
Party nominating conventions
1. past had candidates for office to be nominated either by state legislatures
or “King Caucus” – closed door meetings of political party’s leaders in
Congress
2. 1830s caucuses replaced by nominating conventions where party
politicians and voters meet to nominate candidates = more open to
popular participation = more democratic
popular election of the President: By 1832, only South Carolina chose its
electors for President by state legislature. All others allowed the voters to
choose.
Two-Party System: With more popular vote elections, even for president,
campaigns had to be conducted on national scale where large political parties
were needed.
rise of the third party: Groups like the Anti-Masonic party emerge to reach
out to those who previously had little interest.
more elected officials: A much larger # of state and local officials were
elected to office, tended to increase voter participation
g. popular campaigning: candidates directed campaigns to interests and
prejudices of the common people
1. politics became a form of local entertainment
2. campaigns of 1830s and 1840s had parades, bands, and rallies with food
and drink
3. candidates went “negative” to portray “non-common man” opponent
h. Spoils System and rotation of officeholders
1. Jackson believed in appointing people to federal jobs if they actively
campaigned for the Democratic party. Promoted government corruption
2. Jackson believed “one man was as good as any other” when it came to
holding office. He would limit the term of a Democrat in office, then
replace them with another
II. Jackson v. Adams: Political change in the Jacksonian era began several years before
Jackson moved into the White House. In the controversial election of 1824, Jackson won
more popular votes than any other candidate, but lost the election.
A. Election of 1824: The so-called “Era of Good Feelings” under Monroe ended in political
bad feelings in 1824. By then, the old congressional caucus system or choosing
presidential candidates had broken down. As a result, four candidates of the same party
(the Republicans for by Jefferson) campaigned for presidency: John Quincy Adams,
Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson.
1. Jackson won greatest number of popular votes, but because the vote was split four
ways, le lacked a majority in the electoral college as required by the Constitution.
2. House of Representatives had to choose from the top three
3. Clay used influence in the House to get JQ Adams elected and in turn, Adams made
Clay his Secretary of State
4. Jackson’s group called it a “corrupt bargain.”
B. President J.Q. Adams
1. Further alienated followers of Jackson when he asked Congress for $ for internal
improvements, aid to manufacturing, and even a national university and astrological
observatory
2. Jacksonians viewed all as a waste and a violation of Constitution
3. By 1828, Adams was able to piece together a new tariff law that generally satisfied
northern manufacturers but alienated southern planters, who denounced it as a “tariff
of abominations.”
C. The Revolution of 1828: Adams seeks re-election
1. Jacksonians used discontent of southerners and westerners and new campaign tactics
of party organization to sweep “Old Hickory” into office
2. beyond bbqs, parades, Jackson smeared the president, accusing Adams’ wife of being
born out of wedlock. Adams’s camp responded in kind, accusing Jackson’s wife of
adultery.
3. Mudslinging works – 3x number of voters of 1824
4. Jackson won handily as his reputation as a war hero and man of western frontier
meant more than his stance on issue.
The Age of Jackson (1824-1840)
The era that saw the emergence of popular politics in the 1820s and the presidency of Andrew
Jackson (1829-1937) is often called the Age of the Common Man, or the Era of Jacksonian
Democracy. Questions to consider: Was Jackson a major molder of events, a political
opportunist exploiting the democratic ferment of the times, or merely a symbol of the era?
I.
Jacksonian Democracy: The changing politics of the Jackson years paralleled complex
social and economic changes
A. The Rise of a Democratic Society
1. Alexis de Tocqueville (1830s): 24 yr. old Frenchman was amazed at informal
manners and democratic attitudes of Americans. Found it difficult to distinguish
between classes
a. men and women of all classes ate together in hotels
b. rich and poor road same stagecoaches, steamboats, and later railcars.
c. equality becoming guiding principle of American society (that is of white males).
The idea of “self-made man”: equality of opportunity, in theory, would allow
young men of humble beginnings to rise as far as talent and industry would take
them.
B. Politics of the Common Man: Between 1824 and 1840 politics moved from rich
southern planters and northern merchants and into white males of lower and middle class.
1. votes cast for president: 350,000 (1824) to over 2.4 mil (1840
2. new state suffrage laws
3. changes in political parties and campaign methods, improved education, increases in
newspaper circulation
a. universal male suffrage: all white males
1. recently admitted slaves (Indiana – 1816, Illinois – 1818, Missouri –
1821) adopted state constitutions that allowed all white males to vote and
hold office
2. no religious or property ownership
b. Party nominating conventions
1. past had candidates for office to be nominated either by state legislatures
or “King Caucus” – closed door meetings of political party’s leaders in
Congress
2. 1830s caucuses replaced by nominating conventions where party
politicians and voters meet to nominate candidates = more open to
popular participation = more democratic
c. popular election of the President: By 1832, only South Carolina chose its
electors for President by state legislature. All others allowed the voters to
choose.
d. Two-Party System: With more popular vote elections, even for president,
campaigns had to be conducted on national scale where large political parties
were needed.
e. rise of the third party: Groups like the Anti-Masonic party emerge to reach
out to those who previously had little interest.
f. more elected officials: A much larger # of state and local officials were
elected to office, tended to increase voter participation
g. popular campaigning: candidates directed campaigns to interests and
prejudices of the common people
1. politics became a form of local entertainment
2. campaigns of 1830s and 1840s had parades, bands, and rallies with food
and drink
3. candidates went “negative” to portray “non-common man” opponent
h. Spoils System and rotation of officeholders
1. Jackson believed in appointing people to federal jobs if they actively
campaigned for the Democratic party. Promoted government corruption
2. Jackson believed “one man was as good as any other” when it came to
holding office. He would limit the term of a Democrat in office, then
replace them with another
II. Jackson v. Adams: Political change in the Jacksonian era began several years before
Jackson moved into the White House. In the controversial election of 1824, Jackson won
more popular votes than any other candidate, but lost the election.
A. Election of 1824: The so-called “Era of Good Feelings” under Monroe ended in political
bad feelings in 1824. By then, the old congressional caucus system or choosing
presidential candidates had broken down. As a result, four candidates of the same party
(the Republicans for by Jefferson) campaigned for presidency: John Quincy Adams,
Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson.
1. Jackson won greatest number of popular votes, but because the vote was split four
ways, le lacked a majority in the electoral college as required by the Constitution.
2. House of Representatives had to choose from the top three
3. Clay used influence in the House to get JQ Adams elected and in turn, Adams made
Clay his Secretary of State
4. Jackson’s group called it a “corrupt bargain.”
B. President J.Q. Adams
1. Further alienated followers of Jackson when he asked Congress for $ for internal
improvements, aid to manufacturing, and even a national university and astrological
observatory
2. Jacksonians viewed all as a waste and a violation of Constitution
3. By 1828, Adams was able to piece together a new tariff law that generally satisfied
northern manufacturers but alienated southern planters, who denounced it as a “tariff
of abominations.”
C. The Revolution of 1828: Adams seeks re-election
1. Jacksonians used discontent of southerners and westerners and new campaign tactics
of party organization to sweep “Old Hickory” into office
2. beyond bbqs, parades, Jackson smeared the president, accusing Adams’ wife of being
born out of wedlock. Adams’s camp responded in kind, accusing Jackson’s wife of
adultery.
3. Mudslinging works – 3x number of voters of 1824
4. Jackson won handily as his reputation as a war hero and man of western frontier
meant more than his stance on issue.
Territorial and Economic Expansion
The theme of America’s expansion plan would be known as Manifest Destiny, a term
penned by John L. Sullivan. It spread across the land as a rallying cry for westward
expansion. At first, in the 1840s and 1850s expansionists wanted to see the United States
extend westward all the way to the Pacific and southward into Mexico, Cuba, and Central
America. In the later decade, the 1890s, expansionists fixed their sights on acquiring
islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean.
The phrase “manifest destiny” expressed the popular belief that the United States
had a divine mission to extend its power and civilization across North America.
Enthusiasm reached a fevered pitch in the 1840s. It was driven by a number of forces:
nationalism, population increase, rapid economic development, technological advances,
and reform ideals. But by no means were all Americans behind the idea of manifest
destiny and expansionism. Northern critics agreed vehemently that at the root of the
expansionist drive was the southern ambition to spread slavery into western lands.
I. Conflicts over Texas, Maine, and Oregon: U.S. interest in pushing its borders
southward into Texas (a Mexican province) and westward into the Oregon territory
(claimed by Britain) was largely the result of American pioneers migrating into these
lands during 1820s and 1830s.
A. Texas (1823): Mexico won its independence form Spain, hoped to attract settlers
even Anglos, to form sparsely populated northern frontier province of Texas.
1. Moses Austin, Missouri banker, had obtained a large land grant in Texas, but
died before he could recruit American settlers.
2. Stephen F. Austin, son of Moses, succeeded in bringing in 300 families into
Texas, beginning of steady migration.
3. By 1830, Americans (both white farmers and black slaves) outnumbered
Mexicans in Texas 3 to 1.
4. 1829 – Mexico outlawed slavery and required all immigrants to convert to
Roman Catholicism
a. when American settlers refused to obey, Mexico closed Texas to
additional immigrants.
b. land-hungry Americans ignored Mexican law and kept coming
B. Revolt and Independence (1834): Change in Mexico’s government intensifies
conflict. Antonio Lopez Santa Anna abolishing existing Mexican federal
government system insisted on enforcing Mexico’s laws in Texas.
1. March 1836 - Samuel Houston leads group to revolt and declare Texas as an
independent republic
2. Santa Anna leads Mexican army to capture Goliad and attack the Alamo in
San Antonio, killing all defenders.
3. Battle of San Jacinto River: army under Sam Houston caught Mexicans by
surprise and captured general Santa Anna
4. Under threat of death, forced Santa Anna to sign treaty that recognized Texas
independence and granted the new republic all territory north of the Rio
Grande
5. Mexico’s legislature rejected treaty and insisted on its ownership of Texas.
C. Annexation denied: 1st President of Texas, Sam Houston applied to be added as a
new state.
1. Both Jackson and Van Buren put off Texas’ request primarily because of
political opposition from northerners with fear of expansion of slavery and the
potential of adding five new slave states created out of Texas territories.
2. The threat of a costly war with Mexico also dampened expansionist zeal
3. The next president, John Tyler (1841-1845), was a southern Whig, who was
worried about the growing influence of the British in Texas. He worked to
annex Texas, but the U.S. Senate rejected.
D. Boundary dispute in Maine (1840s): Diplomatic problems of ill-defined
boundary between Maine and New Brunswick (still under British rule)
1. Still an attitude of Britain as public enemy #1 (from Revolution and War of
1812)
2. The Aroostook War or “Battle of the Maps” – Rival groups of lumbermen
opened fighting
3. Resolved by Sec. of State Daniel Webster and British ambassador, Lord
Alexander Ashburton.
4. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842): Land was split between Maine and
British Canada. Also, settled boundary of Minnesota territory, leaving what
proved to be the iron-rich Mesabi Range on the U.S. side
E. Boundary dispute in Oregon: Vast land stretching to Alaska was, at one time,
claimed by four different nations (U.S., Russia, Great Britain, and Spain, who
gave up their in the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819)
1. Britain based its claim on the Hudson Fur Company’s profitable fur trade with
Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest. But by 1846, there were fewer
than 1,000 British living north of the Columbia River.
2. The U.S. based its claim on (1) the discovery of the Columbia River by Capt.
Robert Gray in 1797, (2) the overland expedition of Pacific Coast by Lewis
and Clark in 1805, and (3) the fur trading post and fort in Astoria, Oregon,
established by John Jacob Astor in 1811.
3. Protestant missionaries and farmers from the U.S. settled the Willamette
Valley in 1840s. Their success caused 5,000 Americans to catch “Oregon
Fever” and travel 2,000 miles over the Oregon Trail and settle just south of
the Columbia River.
4. By election of 1844, many believed it to be “manifest destiny” to take
undisputed possession of all of Oregon, annex Texas, and persuade Mexico to
give up its West Coast province of California.
F. Election of 1844: Many northerners were against the annexation of Texas
because it allowed slavery.
1. Northern Democratic Party candidate – former president Martin Van Buren
vs. challenger, proslavery, pro-annexation Southerner, John C. Calhoun (S.C.)
2. After hours of wrangling and no decision, the Democratic Party chose “dark
horse” (lesser known candidate) James K. Polk
3. Polk was a protégé of Jackson, firmly committed to expansion and manifest
destiny.
a. favored annexation of Texas
b. favored the “reoccupation” of Oregon
c. favored the acquisition of California
4. Democratic slogan of “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” (line of latitude marking
the border of Oregon territory and Russian Alaska) appealed to westerners
5. Henry Clay (KY), the Whig nominee, wavered on his decision, thus alienating
groups of voters (the Liberty Party of New York)
6. In a close election, the Whigs’ loss of New York electoral votes proved
decisive and Polk, the Democratic Party dark horse, wins
7. Democrats take election as mandate to annex Texas
G. Annexing Texas: Outgoing President Tyler took Polk’s election as signal to push
for annexation. Pushed through Congressional resolution that only needed a
simple majority vote; left Polk the problem of dealing with Mexico’s reaction
H. Oregon Question: Polk decided to compromise and not fight with Britain and
British and American negotiators agreed to divide the Oregon Territory at 49th
parallel.
1. U.S. agreed to grant Vancouver Island to Britain and guaranteed its right to
navigate the Columbia River.
2. 1846 – brought to Senate for ratification. Some northerners viewed it as a
sell-out to southern interests because it removed British Columbia as a source
for potential free states.
3. War had broken out with Mexico; U.S. didn’t want to fight both Britain and
Mexico at same time
II. War with Mexico: Annexation of Texas immediately caused problems with Mexico.
Shortly after taking office (1845), Polk dispatched John Slidell as his special envoy
to Mexico City. His goals were to (1) persuade Mexico to sell the California and
New Mexico territories to the U.S., and (2) settle a dispute concerning the MexicoTexas border
Slidell failed on both accounts. The Mexican government refused to sell
California and insisted that Texas’s southern border was the Nueces River. Polk and
Slidell thought that it was on the Rio Grande River.
A. Immediate Causes: Waiting for Mexico City’s reply, Polk ordered General
Zachary Taylor to move army toward the Rio Grande.
1. April 24, 1846 – Mexican army crossed the Rio Grande, captured an
American army patrol, killing 11.
2. Polk used incident to send already prepared war message to Congress
3. Northern Whigs (among them, freshman Illinois Congressman Abraham
Lincoln) opposed going to war over the incident and doubted that blood was
shed on American soil as Polk had claimed.
4. Large majority in both houses approved war resolution
B. Military Campaigns: Most of war was fought in Mexican territory by relatively
small armies
1. General Stephen Kearney succeeded in taking Santa Fe, the New Mexico
territory and southern California
2. (June 1846) – Backed by only several dozen soldiers, a few navy officers, and
American civilians who had recently settle in California, John C. Fremont
quickly overthrew Mexican rule in northern California and proclaimed
California to be an independent republic with a bear on its flag (the Bear Flag
Republic)
3. Taylor’s force of 6,000 drove Mexican forces from Texas, crossed the Rio
Grande into northern Mexico and won a major victory at Buena Vista (Feb.
1847)
4. Polk selected Gen’l Winfield C. Scott to invade Mexico. Army of 14,000
took the coastal city of Vera Cruz and captured Mexico City. It was the
largest amphibious assault in American history (replaced by D-Day)
C. Consequences: Mexico forced to surrender and to the treaty table.
1. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – Mexican Cession (1848): Negotiated by
American diplomat Nicolas Twist
2. Mexico would recognize the Rio Grande as southern border of Texas
3. U.S. would take possession of California and New Mexico by paying $15 mil
4. In the Senate, some Whigs apposed the treaty because they saw the war as an
immoral effort to expand slavery
5. Some southern Democrats disliked the treaty because they wanted all of
Mexico
D. Wilmot Proviso (1846): Congressman David Wilmot (PA), proposed that an
appropriations bill be amended to forbid slavery in any of the new territories
acquired from Mexico. It passed the House twice, but died in the Senate
E. Prelude to War?: Do new territories = inevitable Civil War? Some saw the
Wilmot Proviso as round one of escalating political conflict that led to war.
III. Manifest Destiny to the South: Many southerners dissatisfied with territorial gains
from Mexican War. In early 1850s, hoping to acquire new territories, especially in
areas of Latin America where plantations were worked by slaves were thought to be
economically feasible. Cuba was most eagerly sought after.
A. Ostend Manifesto: Polk offers to buy Cuba from Spain for $100 mil, Spain
refused to give up last part of former empire.
1. several southern adventurers led small expeditions to Cuba in an effort to take
the island by force. They were easily defeated and executed by Spanish firing
squads
2. Elected to President in 1852, Franklin Pierce adopted pro-southern policies,
dispatching American diplomats to Ostend, Belgium, where they secretly
negotiated to buy Cuba from Spain.
a. The Manifesto was leaked to U.S. press and provoked angry reaction
from anti-slavery members of Congress
b. President Pierce was forced to drop the scheme
B. Walker Expedition (1853): Southern adventurer William Walker tried
unsuccessfully to take Baja California from Mexico. (1855) He then led a force
of southerners, tried to take over Nicaragua; even gained temporary recognition
from the United States.
1. Plan to develop a pro-slavery Central American empire collapsed
2. Coalition of Central American countries invaded and defeated Walker and he
was executed by Honduran authorities in 1860
C. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1855): Concerned with building a canal through Central
America. Wanting to check each other from seizing the opportunity, Great
Britain and U.S. agree to treaty
1. Neither would attempt to take exclusive control of any future canal route in
Central America
2. Treaty would last until end of the century
D. Gadsen Purchase (1853): President Pierce added a strip of land to the American
Southwest for a railroad pass. $10 mil for thousands of acres that forms southern
sections of present day New Mexico and Arizona
* Expansion after the Civil War: From 1855 - 1870, the issues of Union, slavery,
Civil War, and postwar Reconstruction would overshadow the drive to acquire new
territory. Even so, Manifest Destiny continued to be an important force for shaping
U.S. policy. In 1867, for example Sec. of State William Seward succeeded in
purchasing Alaska while we were recovering from the Civil War
IV. Settlement of the Western Territories: Following the peaceful acquisition of
Oregon and the more violent acquisition of California, the migration of
Americans into these lands began in earnest. The arid area between the
Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Coast was popularly known in the 1850s and
the 1860s as the “Great American Desert.” Emigrants passed quickly over the
vast, dry region to reach more inviting lands on the West Coast. Therefore,
California and Oregon were settled several decades before people attempted to
farm the Great Plains.
A. Fur Traders’ Frontier: Mountain men were the earliest non-native group to open
the Far West
1. 1820s – held yearly rendezvous in the Rockies with Native Americans to trade
for animal skins
2. James Beckwourth, Jim Bridger, Kit, Carson, and Jedediah Smith were among
those who provided much of the early information about trails and frontier
conditions
B. Overland Trails: The next and much larger group of pioneers took the hazardous
journey west in hopes of clearing forests and farming the fertile valleys of
California and Oregon
1. By 1860, hundreds of thousands went westward following the Oregon,
California, Santa Fe, and Mormon Trails
2. Usually began in St. Joseph or Independence, Missouri or Council Bluffs,
Iowa and followed the river valleys through the Great Plains
3. Dealing with harsh winters at 15 miles a day, daily experience of disease and
depression on the trail were more serious than the threat of Indian attacks
C. Mining Frontier: Discovery of gold in 1848 set off 1st of many migrations to
mineral rich mountains of the West
1. Gold Rush (1848-1850) followed by gold and silver rushes in Colorado,
Nevada, and the Black Hills of the Dakota, and other western territories
2. Mining boom brought tens of thousands of men (and women afterwards) into
the western mountains and sprung up mining camps and towns when and
wherever a “strike” was reported
3. As a result, California’s population – 14,000 (1848) to 380,000 (1860)
4. By 1860s, almost 1/3 of the miners in the West were Chinese
D. Farming Frontier: Most pioneer families moved west to start homesteads and
began farming
1. Congress Pre-emption Acts: 1830s and 1840s gave squatters the right to
settle public lands and purchase them for low prices once the government put
them up for sale.
a. Government made it easier for settlers by offering parcels of land as small
as 40 acres for sale
b. The move, however, was typically a middle class movement since they
would need at least $200 - $300 to make the overland trip
2. Isolation of frontier made life especially difficult during the first years, but
rural communities soon developed. Settlers brought institutions (schools,
churches, clubs, and political parties) from the east or from their native
countries.
E. Urban Frontier: The era of territorial expansion coincided with a period of
remarkable economic growth, especially during the years of 1840-1855
1. Industrial technology: Before 1840, production mainly in textile mills of
New England, and after 1840, it spread to other states of the Northeast.
a. The new factories produced shoes, sewing machines, ready to wear
clothes, firearms, precision tools, and iron products for railroads and other
technologies.
b. Sewing machine (Elias Howe) took much production out of the home and
into the factory. Electric telegraph (Samuel F.B. Morse) went hand in
hand with the growth of railroads, enormously speeding up
communication and transportation across the country.
F. Railroads: The canal building era of the 1820s and 1830s was replaced in the
next two decades with the rapid expansion of rail lines, especially across the north
and Midwest. The railroads soon emerged as America’s largest industry.
1. Required immense amounts of capital and labor and gave rise to a complex
system of business organizations
2. Local merchants and farmers often would buy stock in the new railroad
companies in order to connect their areas to the outside world.
3. Local and state governments also helped railroads by granting special loans
and tax breaks.
4. In 1850, U.S. government granted 2.6 million acres of federal land to build the
Illinois Central Railroad from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico, the first
such federal grant
5. Cheap and rapid transportation particularly promoted western agriculture.
Farmers in Illinois and Iowa were more closely linked by rail than by river
routes to the South. The new economic linkages between the northeast and
the Midwest would give the North a critical advantage in the Civil War
G. Foreign Commerce: Growth in manufactured goods, as well as in agricultural
products (both western grains and southern cotton), caused a significant growth of
exports and imports. Other factors also played a role in the expansion of U.S.
trade in the mid 1800s
1. Shipping firms encouraged trade and travel across the Atlantic by having their
sailing packets depart on a regular schedule (instead of the unscheduled
departures that had been customary in the 18th century)
2. The demand for whale oil to light homes of middle class America caused a
whaling boom between 1830 and 1860, in which New England merchants
took the lead
3. Improvements in the design of ships came just in time to speed gold seekers
on their journey to California gold fields. The development of the Yankee
Clipper ship cut the 5-6 month trip from New York around the Horn to San
Francisco to as little as 89 days
4. Steamships took the place of clipper ships in the mid-1850s because they had
greater storage capacity; could be maintained at a lower cost, and could more
easily follow a regular schedule
5. The federal government sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry to Japan to
persuade that country to open up its ports to trade with Americans. In 1854,
Perry convinced Japan’s government to agree to a treaty that opened 2
Japanese ports to U.S. trading vessels
* The mid-century economic boom ended in 1857 with a financial panic. It was
marked by serious drop in prices, especially for Midwest farmers and increased
unemployment in northern cities. The South was less affected, for cotton prices remained
high. This gave some southerners the idea that their plantation economy was superior
and that would continue even if the northern economy was not needed.
Chapter 13
AP History
Common man
Party nominating convention
Popular election of president
Spoils system
“corrupt bargain”
Tariff of 1828 “tariff of abominations”
Popular campaigning
Role of the president
Peggy Eaton Affair
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
Trail of Tears
Nullification crisis
Webster-Haynes debate
John C. Calhoun
Nicholas Biddle
Roger Taney
Specie Circular
Martin Van Buren
William Crawford
William Henry Harrison
John Tyler
Black Hawk
Annexation
“favorite son”
“Revolution of 1828”
“King Mob”
Tariff of 1832
Tariff of 1833
Force Bill
Divorce Bill
Independent treasury
Whig party
universal male suffrage
“King Caucus”
Anti-Masonic party
John Quincy Adams
Henry Clay
Andrew Jackson
Revolution of 1828
rotation in office
Indian Removal Act (1830)
Worchester v. Georgia
states’ rights
Daniel Webster
Osceola
Bank of the United States
two-party system: Democrats/Whigs
“pet banks”
Panic of 1837
“log cabin and hard cider” campaign
Stephen F. Austin
Sam Houston
Santa Anna
William Travis
antislavery
Democratic-Republicans
Twelfth Amendment
South Carolina Exhibition
“slavocracy”
Panic of 1837
Seminole Indians
Lone Star
Democratic Party