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Chapter 4 Fitness and Conditioning Techniques
Chapter 4
Extended Lecture Outline
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Introduction:
o Preventing injury to the athlete is one of the primary functions of the athletic trainer.
o The athletic trainer should recognize that improper conditioning is one of the primary contributing
factors to sports injury.
o Therapeutic exercises indicate exercises that are used in a rehabilitation program.
o The athletic trainer must have a sound understanding of the principles for improving
cardiorespiratory endurance, muscle strength and endurance and flexibility.
The Relationship Between Athletic Trainers and Strength and Conditioning Coaches
o Role of Athletic Trainer is to critically review the training and conditioning program designed by
the strength and conditioning coach
o If athletes are getting injured by a particular exercise, the athletic trainer should inform the
strength and conditioning coach so an alternative exercise can be substituted
o If athlete is undergoing rehabilitation, modifications and or limitations in the weight room should
be communicated to strength and conditioning coach
o In secondary schools, the athletic trainer may also serve as the strength and conditioning coach
Principles of Conditioning
o The principles of conditioning should be applied to all training programs to minimize the
likelihood of injury.
o Safety: Take time to educate athletes on proper techniques related to sport and make the
environment safe.
o Warm-up/cooldown
o Motivation: vary the workouts use periodization can keep program enjoyable
o Overload
 SAID principle: Specific adaptation to imposed demands. When the body is subjected to
stresses and overloads of varying intensities, it will gradually adapt over time to
overcome whatever demands are placed on it.
o Consistency: exercise on a regular schedule
o Progression: Increase intensity gradually and within the athlete’s ability
o Intensity: Stress the intensity rather than the quantity
o Specificity: Identify specific goals for the training program
o Individuality: Adjust or alter workouts based on athlete’s level of ability, training etc.
o Minimize Stress: Consider other aspects of their lives and give them time to be away from the
conditioning demands of their sport
Warm-up and Cool-Down
o Warm-up
 Generally accepted but little research in literature to support the efficacy
 Function is to prepare the body physiologically for up coming physical work
 Purpose is to gradually stimulate the cardiorespiratory system, increase blood flow to
working skeletal muscles and increase muscle temperature
 Principles:
 Begin with 2-3 minutes of whole body activities that use large muscle groups
(light jogging), to elevate metabolic rate and core temperature
 Stretching should be sport specific
 Perform sport specific skills related to activity
 Should last 10-15 minutes, and activity should be started within 15 minutes after
the warm-up has been completed
o Cool-down
 Enables the body to cool and return to resting state
 Should last 10-15 minutes
 Experience shows that those who stretch during a cool-down period tend to have less
muscle soreness after strenuous activity.
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Cardiorespiratory Endurance
o The ability to perform whole-body large muscle activities for extended periods of time
o Transport and Utilization of Oxygen
 Transport of oxygen involves four components: the heart, the lungs, the blood vessels and
the blood
 Maximum aerobic capacity (VO2 max): The greatest rate at which oxygen can be taken
in and used during exercise
 Each person has his/her own maximal rate of oxygen consumption
 The greater the percentage of maximum oxygen consumption required during an
activity, the less time the activity may be sustained
 Maximal rate at which oxygen can be used is genetically determined
 Normal maximum aerobic capacity for most college-age athletes = 45-60
ml/kg/min (world class male marathon runner = 70-80 ml/kg/min)
 Determined by three factors
o External respiration involving the ventilatory process or pulmonary
function
o Gas transport by the cardiovascular system (heart, blood vessels and
blood) – (Most limiting factor of the three, limits the overall rate of
oxygen consumption)
o Internal respiration involving the use of oxygen by the cells to produce
energy
o Effects on the Heart
 Heart rate and oxygen consumption have a linear relationship
 The greater the intensity of exercise the higher the heart rate (rate of oxygen consumption
can be estimated by taking heart rate)
 Increased stroke volume – the volume of blood pumped out with each beat
 The heart pumps out approximately 70 ml of blood per beat
 Stoke volume increases until 40% of maximal heart rate has been reached
 Stroke volume and heart rate together determine the volume of blood being pumped
through the heart in a given unit of time
 5 L of blood pumped through heart during each minute of rest
 Cardiac output = The amount of blood the heart is capable of pumping in exactly
one minute.
o Primary determinant of maximal rate of oxygen consumption possible
 Training effect: Stroke volume increases while heart rate is reduced at a given
exercise load
o (Training effect = Increased stroke volume X decreased heart rate)
o Effects on Work Ability
 Fatigue is closely related to the percentage of maximum aerobic capacity that a particular
workload demands
 Athletic performance may be impaired if the ability to use oxygen efficiently is impaired
– able to sustain exercise intensity for longer period of time if have a higher maximum
aerobic capacity
o The Energy Systems
 ATP: The immediate Energy Source
 Energy is produced from the breakdown of nutrient foodstuffs
 ATP is produced in the muscle tissue from blood glucose or glycogen
 Glucose is derived from breakdown of carbohydrates
 Glucose not needed immediately is stored in the resting muscle and liver
 Stored glycogen in the liver can be converted back to glucose and transferred to
the blood
 Fats and proteins can also be used to generate ATP
 Once the muscle and liver glycogen is depleted, the body relies on fats stored in
adipose tissue for energy
 The longer the duration of an activity, the greater the amount of fat that is used
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 Submax exertion both fat and CHO’s are used as energy in 60% to 40% ratio
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Metabolism
 Both systems generate ATP
 Both ATP and muscle glycogen can be metabolized without the need for oxygen
= anaerobic metabolism, as exercise continues the body has to rely on the
metabolism of carbohydrates (glucose) and fats to generate ATP and requires
oxygen to do so (aerobic metabolism)
 In most activities both aerobic and anaerobic systems function simultaneously
 The degree each is involved depends on the intensity and duration of activity
o Aerobic Activities: Continuous, long duration sustained activities. Less
intense, 60%-90% of maximum range, 20-60 minutes in duration, 3-6
times a week
o Anaerobic Activities: Explosive, short duration, burst type activities.
More intense, 90%-100% of maximum range, 10 seconds – 2 minutes,
3-4 times per week
o Training Techniques for Improving Cardiorespiratory Endurance
 Continuous Training
 Frequency – Must engage in no fewer than 3 sessions a week, if possible should
aim for 4-5 sessions a week, should take one day off a week to allow for both
psychological and physiological rest
 Intensity – Most critical factor.
o Identify the target heart rate (220 – age X percent of maximal rate
(70%)
 Type - the activity must be aerobic in nature and elevate the heart rate and
maintain it at that level for an extended time.
 Time- For minimal improvement to occur, an individual must participate in at
least 20 minutes of continuous activity with the heart rate elevated to its working
level
 Interval Training: involves intermittent activities
 (Example – running ten 120 yard sprints with a 45 second walking recovery
period between sprints)
 Consists of alternating periods of relatively intense work and active recovery
 Allows work at 80% or higher level for a short period of time, with active
recovery at 30-45% of max HR
 Allows for more sport specificity during workouts
 Training period = amount of time that continuous activity is actually being
performed
 Recovery period = the time between training periods
 Set = a group of combined training and recovery periods
 Reps = the number of training and recovery periods per set
 Training time or distance = rate of distance of the training period
 Training-recovery ratio = a time ratio for training vs. recovery
 Speed Play – Type of cross country running originally referred to as “Fartlek”
 Similar to interval training, however specific pace and speed are not identified
 Terrain should vary – uphill, downhill, etc
 Put surges into a running workout, varying the length of the surges according to
individual purposes
 Must elevate heart rate to at least minimal training levels
 May be best utilized in the off-season for conditioning activities
 Equipment for Improving Cardiorespiratory Endurance
 Prices of equipment can range from $2 for a jump rope to $60,000 for certain
isokinetic devices, and $10,000 for a treadmill
The Importance of Muscular Strength, Endurance, and Power
o Muscular strength: Ability of a muscle to generate force against some resistance
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Muscular endurance: Ability to perform repetitive muscular contractions against some resistance
for an extended period of time.
As muscular strength increases there tends to be a corresponding increase in muscular endurance
Physiological and Biomechanical Factors that Determine Levels of Muscular Strength
 Muscular strength is proportional to the cross-sectional diameter of the muscle fibers
 Hypertrophy: Enlargement of a muscle caused by an increase in the size of its
cells in response to training
 Atrophy: Decrease of a muscle caused by a decrease in the size of its cells
because of inactivity
 Size of the Muscle: Number of muscle fibers is inherited, larger number of
muscle fibers the more potential for hypertrophy
 Explanations for Muscle Hypertrophy
o Theory I: Muscle fibers increase because fibers split in response to
training.
o (The number of muscle fibers is genetically determined and does not
seem to increase with training)
o Theory II: Muscle is working harder, more blood is required to supply
that muscle, thus the number of capillaries is increased
 (Few new capillaries are formed during strength training, but a
number of dormant capillaries may become filled with blood)
o III: Myofilaments, which are contractile elements of muscle, increase
in both size and number as a result of strength training, causing the
individual muscle fibers to increase in diameter (Most credible)
 Improved neuromuscular Efficiency: Efficiency is achieved by getting more
motor units to fire, causing a stronger muscular contraction, not uncommon to
see rapid gains in strength when first starting a weight training program due to
improvement in neuromuscular function
 Other Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Exercise
o Strength of non-contractile structures including tendons and ligaments
is increased
o Mineral content of bone is increased making the bone stronger and
more resistant to fracture
o Maximal oxygen uptake is improved
o Several enzymes important in aerobic and anaerobic metabolism also
increase
 Biomechanical factors:
o The length of a muscle determines the tension that can be generated
o By varying the length of a muscle, different tensions may be produced
(length-tension relationship)
 Overtraining: Can result in physiological breakdown of muscle tissue (staleness)
 Reversibility: Adaptations in skeletal muscle that occur in response to resistance
training may begin to reverse in 48 hours.
 Fast-Twitch vs. Slow-Twitch
 Slow-twitch fibers (Type I fibers or slow oxidatitive “SO”)
o with mitochondria and myoglobin – red in color
o Resistant to fatigue – carry more oxygen
o Longer time required to generate force
o Associated primarily with long-duration aerobic activities
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Fast-twitch fibers (Type II fibers or fast oxidatitive glycolytic “FOG”)
o Produce quick forceful contractions
o Tendency to fatigue more rapidly
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Useful in short-term, high intensity activities that mainly involve the
anaerobic system
 Subgroups of Fast-twitch fibers
o Type IIa fibers: like slow twitch fibers – moderately resistant to fatigue
o Type IIx fibers: (fast glycolytic “FG” or Type IId) – fastest muscle type
in humans, can contract rapidly and with greater force than IIa. These
fibers can sustain only short anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle
contraction becomes painful
o Type IIb: Less dense in mitochondria and myoglobin and fatigue
rapidly – white in color and are considered the “true” fast-twitch fibers
o Any given muscle contains both fiber types, the ratio in an individual
muscle varies with each person
o Ratio is genetically determined
o There can almost be a complete change from slow-twitch to fast-twitch
and vice-versa in response to training
 Skeletal Muscle Contractions
 Isometric contraction: The muscle contracts to increase tension but there is no
change in the length of the muscle.
 Concentric contraction: (Positive Contraction) The muscle shortens in length as
a contraction is developed to overcome or move some resistance.
o Accelerate movement
 Eccentric contraction: (Negative Contraction) The resistance is greater than the
muscular force being produced, and the muscle lengthens while continuing to
contract.
o Greater force production
o More resistant to fatigue, due to lower oxygen utilization
o Decelerate movements
Techniques of Resistance Training
 For a muscle to improve in strength, it must be forced to work at a higher level
than it is accustomed to = Overload
 Functional Strength Training
 The kinetic chain is an integrated functional unit, composed of muscle, tendons,
fascia, ligaments, articular system and the neural system
 These structures function simultaneously to allow for structural and functional
efficiency
 If one system is not working efficiently, the other systems are forced to adapt
and compensate
 Functional movements occur in three planes and use eccentric, concentric and
isometric contractions
 Core Stability Training
 Core = muscles in the lumbar spine, the abdomen and muscles around the hip
and pelvis
 A weak core is a fundamental problem of inefficient movements that lead to
injury – strengthening should be an important component of all comprehensive
strengthening programs
 Isometric exercise
 Muscle contraction in which the length remains constant while tension develops
toward maximal force against immovable object
 Strength gains are specific to the joint angle used
 Disadvantage: tends to produce spike in systolic blood pressure (valsalva effect)
 Progressive resistance exercise
 Strengthen muscles through a contraction that overcomes some fixed resistance
produced by equipment (dumbbells, barbells, weight machines)
 Isotonic contractions: may be either concentric or eccentric
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It is essential to incorporate both contractions for greatest strength
improvement
o One to two seconds for concentric portion
o Two to four seconds for eccentric portion
Eccentric vs. Concentric
o Greater amounts of force against resistance are generated with eccentric
than with concentric contractions
o Eccentric contractions require a lower level of motor unit activity to
achieve a certain force
o Eccentric contractions are more resistant to fatigue
o Concentric – accelerate movements, Eccentric decelerate movements
Free Weights versus Machine Weights
o Exercise machines are relatively safe to use compared to free weights
o Simple process to vary weights on machines
Spotting for Free Weight Exercises
o A spotter had three functions: to protect the lifter from injury, to make
recommendations on proper lifting techniques and to help motivate the
lifter (See Focus Box 4-2)
Isotonic Training
o Isotonic exercise shortens and lengthens the muscle through a complete
range of motion – incorporates both eccentric and concentric
contractions
o One to two seconds for concentric portion
o Two to four seconds for eccentric portion
o It is essential to incorporate both contractions for greatest strength
improvement
Progressive Resistive Exercise Techniques
o Overload is the basis of progressive resistance exercise. The amount of
weight used and the number of reps must be enough to make the
muscle work at a higher intensity than it is used to working
o Terminology
 Repetitions: The number of times a specific movement is
repeated
 Repetition Max (RM): The maximum number of repetitions at
a given weight
 Repetition Max (RM): The maximum number of repetitions at
a given weight
 Repetition Max (RM): The maximum number of repetitions at
a given weight
 One repetition maximum (1RM): The maximum amount of
weight that can be lifted one time
 Set: A particular number of repetitions
 Intensity: The amount of weight or resistance lifted
 Recovery period: The rest interval between sets
 Frequency: The number of times an exercise is done in one
week
o Program Recommendations
 The amount of weight selected should be sufficient to allow 68 RM range
 If at least 3 sets of 6 reps cannot be completed the weight is
too heavy and should be reduced
 If can do more than 3 sets of 8 reps, the weight is too light and
should be increased
 Progression to heavier weights is determined by the ability to
perform at least 8 RM in each of 3 sets
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Progress by increments of 10% from current weight being
lifted – should still be able to do at least 6 RM in each of 3
sets
A particular muscle group should be exercised consistently
every other day - thus the frequency should be at least 3 times
per week, but no more than 4 times per week
When training for strength – use heavier weights with a lower
number of repetitions
When training for endurance – use lighter weights with a
greater number of reps, consisting of 3 sets of 10-15 reps
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Isokinetic exercise:
 Involves muscle contraction in which the length of the muscle is changing while
the contraction is performed at a constant velocity
 Best used as a rehabilitative and diagnostic tool
 Circuit training
 A series of exercise stations that consist of various combinations of weight
training, flexibility, calisthenics and brief aerobic exercises.
 Typical circuit involves eight to twelve stations
 Circuit often repeated 3 times
 Calisthenic Strengthening exercises
 Free exercise - require the athlete to support the body or move the total body
against the force of gravity. (Push-ups)
 Plyometric exercise
 Specific exercises that encompass a rapid stretch of a muscle eccentrically,
followed immediately by a rapid concentric contraction of that muscle for the
purpose of facilitating and developing a forceful explosive movement over a
short period of time.
 Emphasize the speed of the eccentric phase
 The rate of the stretch is more critical than the magnitude of the stretch
 Help develop eccentric control with dynamic movements
 Include hopping, bounding, depth jumps
o Strength Training for the Female
 Muscle hypertrophy is dependent upon the presence of testosterone
 Rapid initial gains in strength tend to plateau after 3-4 weeks, as muscle will not continue
to hypertrophy to any significant degree
 Females have a reduced strength-to–body-weight ratio due to their higher level of body
fat, this ratio can be improved through weight training by decreasing the % body fat in
increasing lean weight
o Strength Training in the Prepubescent and Adolescent
 If properly supervised, young athletes can improve strength, power, endurance, balance
and proprioception
 Develop positive body image, improve sports performance and prevent injuries
 Prepubescent child can experience gains in levels of muscle strength without significant
muscle hypertrophy
 A program that utilizes calisthenic strengthening exercises with body weight resistance
should be incorporated
Improving and Maintaining Flexibility
o Flexibility is the ability to move a joint or series of joints smoothly and easily throughout a full
range of motion
o Restricted ROM will limit an athletes performance capabilities
o Lack of flexibility results in uncoordinated or awkward movements and predisposes athletes to
muscle strains
 Factors that limit flexibility
 Bony structure: May restrict the endpoint in the range
 Excessive fat: May act as a wedge between two lever arms restricting motion
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Skin: Inelastic scar tissue formed at site of an injury is incapable of stretching
with joint movement
 Muscles and their tendons
 Connective tissue: Ligaments and capsule are subject to contractures
 Neural tissue tightness: Pain causes muscle guarding to protect inflamed tissues
and alters normal movement patterns
o From acute compression
o Chronic repetitive microtrauma
o Muscle imbalances
o Joint dysfunction
o Poor posture
Agonist versus Antagonist Muscles
 Agonist: The muscle that contracts to produce movement
 Antagonist: The muscle being stretched in response to contraction of the agonist muscle
Active and Passive ROM
 Active range of motion: (Dynamic flexibility) the degree to which a joint can be moved
by a muscle contraction.
 Passive range of motion: (Static flexibility) the degree to which a joint may be passively
moved to the endpoints in the range of motion.
Mechanisms for Improving Flexibility
 Neurophysiological Basis of Stretching
 Stretching techniques based on neurophysiological phenomenon involve the
stretch reflex
 Muscle spindles: respond to stretch in tissues, causes muscle to reflexively
contract, thus resisting the stretch
 Golgi tendon organs: respond to change in length and increases in tension –
cause reflex relaxation of the antagonist muscle
 Autogenic inhibition: relaxation of the antagonist muscle during contractions
 Reciprocal inhibition: Contraction of the agonist muscle causes a reflex
relaxation in the antagonist muscle, allowing it to stretch and protects it from
injury
The Effects of Stretching on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Muscle
 Neurophysiological mechanisms of both autogenic and reciprocal inhibition result in
reflex relaxation with subsequent lengthening of a muscle
 Mechanical properties of a muscle that physically allow lengthening to occur are dictated
via neural input
 Lengthening of a muscle via stretching allows for viscoelastic and plastic changes to
occur in the collagen and elastin fibers
 Viscoelastic changes allow slow deformation with imperfect recover are not permanent –
plastic changes occur with long periods of stretching
Stretching Techniques
 Goal of flexibility program is to improve the range of motion at a given joint by altering
the extensibility of the musculotendinous units that produce movement at that joint
 Types of Stretching:
 Ballistic: Involves bouncing movements in which repetitive contractions of the
agonist muscle are used to produce quick stretches of the antagonist muscle
 Dynamic Stretching: Controlled stretching that is closely related to the types of
activities that athletes engage in and are therefore more functional in nature
 Static Stretching: Involves passively stretching a given antagonist muscle by
placing it in a maximal position of stretch and holding it there for an extended
time
 PNF Stretching Techniques: Involve some combination of alternating
contraction and relaxation of both agonist and antagonist muscles. All use 10
second push phase followed by a 10 second relax phase.
o Slow-reversal hold
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o Contract-relax
o Hold-relax
 Comparing Techniques
 PNF stretching can produce dramatic increases in range of motion during one
stretching session – disadvantage is that one needs a partner
 Stretching Neural Structures
 Stretching Fascia
 The connective tissue that surrounds the musculotendinous unit can significantly
limit motion
 Stretching the Fascia can be done manually or using a firm foam roller
 The Pilates Method of Stretching
 Exercise technique devised by Joseph Pilates
 Conditioning program that improves muscle control, flexibility, coordination,
strength and tone
 Basic principle is to make people more aware of their bodies as single integrated
units, improve body alignment and breathing, and to increase efficiency of
movement
 Yoga
 Originated in India approximately 6,000 years ago
 Basic philosophy is that most illness is related to poor mental attitudes, posture
and diet
 Yoga can help individuals reduce stress and to cope with stress-induced
behaviors like overeating, hypertension and smoking
 Aims to unite the body and mind to reduce stress
 Uses deep breathing to help calm the body and also increases the production of
endorphins
o Measuring Range of Motion
 Goniometer – large protractor with measurements in degrees
 Inclinometer – more precise measuring instrument with high reliability that has most
often been used in research settings
Fitness Assessment
o Testing may be done in a pretest/posttest format to determine significant improvement from some
baseline measure
o Tests may be used to assess flexibility, muscular strength, endurance, power, cardiorespiratory
endurance, speed, balance or agility (see focus box 4-4)
Periodization in Conditioning
o Periodization is an approach to conditioning that brings about peak performance while reducing
injuries and overtraining in the athlete through training and conditioning programs that are carried
out through various seasons.
 Macrocycle: The complete training period (1 year for seasonal sports or 4 years for an
Olympic athlete)
 Mesocycle: Each lasts for several weeks or even months and are divided into transition,
preparatory and competition periods
 Transition Period: Begins after the last competition and comprises the early part
of the off-season.
 Preparatory Period: Occurs primarily during the off-season when there are no
upcoming competitions.
o Hypertrophy/endurance phase: Training is at a low intensity with a high
volume of reps and may last several weeks to two months (Goal:
develop a base of endurance on which more intense training can occur)
o Strength phase: Occurs during off-season, the intensity and volume
progress to moderate levels – activities become more sport specific
o Power phase: Occurs in pre-season, intensity is high – at or near the
level of competition, volume is decreased so that full recovery is
allowed between sessions
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Competition Period: May last for only a week or less, with seasonal sports it
may last several months. Involves High intensity training at a low volume,
progressing to light training the day before a competition. (Goal: Make sure the
athlete will be at peak levels of fitness and performance on days of competition.
Cross Training: Involves substituting alternative activities that have some carryover value
to a particular sport
 Useful during both transition and early preparatory periods
 Adds variety to training regimens
 Not sport specific and should not be used during the preseason.
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