Download Slide 1

Chapter 30
How Animals Move
PowerPoint Lectures for
Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition
Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
Introduction
 Horses are well adapted for long-distance running
with legs that are
– long and
– light.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.0_1
Chapter 30: Big Ideas
Movement and
Locomotion
Muscle Contraction
and Movement
The Vertebrate Skeleton
Figure 30.0_2
MOVEMENT AND
LOCOMOTION
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome
friction and gravity
 Animal movement
– is very diverse but
– relies on the same cellular mechanisms, moving protein
strands against one another using energy.
 Locomotion
– is active travel from place to place and
– requires energy to overcome friction and gravity.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome
friction and gravity
 An animal swimming is
– supported by water but
– slowed by friction.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.1A
30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome
friction and gravity
 An animal walking, hopping, or running
– involves less overall friction between air and the animal,
– must resist gravity, and
– requires good balance.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.1B
Figure 30.1C
30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome
friction and gravity
 An animal burrowing or crawling
– must overcome great friction between the animal and
the ground,
– is more stable with respect to gravity,
– may move by side-to-side undulations (such as
snakes), or
– may move by a form of peristalsis (such as worms).
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.1D
Longitudinal Circular
muscle
muscle
contracted
relaxed
(extended)
Circular Longitudinal
muscle muscle
relaxed contracted
Head
1
Bristles
2
3
Figure 30.1D_1
Longitudinal Circular
muscle
muscle
relaxed
contracted
(extended)
Circular Longitudinal
muscle muscle
relaxed contracted
Head
1
Bristles
2
3
Figure 30.1D_2
30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome
friction and gravity
 An animal flying uses its wings as airfoils to
generate lift.
 Flying has evolved in very few groups of animals.
Flying animals include
– most insects,
– reptiles, including birds, and
– bats (mammals).
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.1E
Figure 30.1E_1
30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome
friction and gravity
 Animal movement results from a collaboration
between muscles and a skeletal system to
overcome
– friction and
– gravity.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement,
and protection
 Skeletons provide
– body support,
– movement by working with muscles, and
– protection of internal organs.
 There are three main types of animal skeletons:
– hydrostatic skeletons,
– exoskeletons, and
– endoskeletons.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement,
and protection
1. Hydrostatic skeletons are
– fluid held under pressure in a closed body
compartment and
– found in worms and cnidarians.
– Hydrostatic skeletons
– help protect other body parts by cushioning them from
shocks,
– give the body shape, and
– provide support for muscle action.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.2A
30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement,
and protection
2. Exoskeletons are rigid external skeletons that
consist of
– chitin and protein in arthropods and
– calcium carbonate shells in molluscs.
– Exoskeletons must be shed to permit growth.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.2B
Figure 30.2C
Shell
(exoskeleton)
Mantle
30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement,
and protection
3. Endoskeletons consist of hard or leathery
supporting elements situated among the soft
tissues of an animal. They may be made of
– cartilage or cartilage and bone (vertebrates),
– spicules (sponges), or
– hard plates (echinoderms).
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.2D
Figure 30.2E
Figure 30.2E_1
THE VERTEBRATE
SKELETON
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate
skeletons are variations on an ancient theme
 The vertebrate skeletal system provided
– the structural support and
– means of location
– that enabled tetrapods to colonize land.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate
skeletons are variations on an ancient theme
 The human skeleton consists of an
– axial skeleton
– that supports the axis or trunk of the body and
– consists of the skull, vertebrae, and ribs and
– appendicular skeleton
– that includes the appendages and the bones that anchor the
appendage and
– consists of the arms, legs, shoulders, and pelvic girdles.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.3A
Skull
Pectoral
girdle
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Ribs
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius
Ulna
Pelvic girdle
Carpals
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Figure 30.3A_1
Skull
Pectoral
girdle
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Ribs
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius
Ulna
Pelvic girdle
Carpals
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Figure 30.3A_2
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Figure 30.3B
Intervertebral
discs
7 cervical
vertebrae
12 thoracic
vertebrae
Hip
bone
5 lumbar
vertebrae
Sacrum
Coccyx
30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate
skeletons are variations on an ancient theme
 Vertebrate bodies reveal variations of this basic
skeletal arrangement.
 Master control (homeotic) genes
– are active during early development and
– direct the arrangement of the skeleton.
– Vertebrate evolution has included changes in these
master control genes.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.3C
Python
Chicken
Thoracic
vertebrae
Cervical
vertebrae
Gene expression
during development
Hoxc6
Hoxc8
Hoxc6 and Hoxc8
Lumbar
vertebrae
30.4 Bones are complex living organs
 Cartilage at the ends of bones
– cushions joints and
– reduces friction of movements.
 Fibrous connective tissue covering most of the
outer surface of bone forms new bone in the event
of a fracture.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.4 Bones are complex living organs
 Bone cells
– live in a matrix of flexible protein fibers and hard
calcium salts and
– are kept alive by blood vessels, hormones, and nerves.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.4 Bones are complex living organs
 Long bones have
– a central cavity storing fatty yellow bone marrow and
– spongy bone located at the ends of bones containing
red bone marrow, a specialized tissue that produces
blood cells.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.4
Cartilage
Spongy
bone
(contains red
bone marrow)
Compact
bone
Central
cavity
Yellow
bone marrow
Fibrous
connective
tissue
Blood
vessels
Cartilage
Figure 30.4_1
Cartilage
Spongy
bone
(contains red
bone marrow)
Compact
bone
Central
cavity
Figure 30.4_2
Yellow
bone marrow
Fibrous
connective
tissue
Blood
vessels
Cartilage
30.5 CONNECTION: Healthy bones resist stress
and heal from injuries
 Bone cells
– repair bones and
– reshape bones throughout life.
 Broken bones
– are realigned and immobilized and
– bone cells build new bone, healing the break.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.5A
30.5 CONNECTION: Healthy bones resist stress
and heal from injuries
 Osteoporosis is
– a bone disease,
– characterized by low bone mass and structural
deterioration, and
– less likely if a person
– has high levels of calcium in the diet,
– exercises regularly, and
– does not smoke.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.5B
30.6 Joints permit different types of movement
 Joints allow limited movement of bones.
 Different joints permit various movements.
– Ball-and-socket joints enable rotation in the arms and
legs.
– Hinge joints in the elbows and knees permit
movement in a single plane.
– Pivot joints enable the rotation of the forearm at the
elbow.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.6
Head
of humerus
Humerus
Scapula
Ulna
Ulna
Radius
Ball-and-socket joint
Hinge joint
Pivot joint
Figure 30.6_1
Head
of humerus
Scapula
Ball-and-socket joint
Figure 30.6_2
Humerus
Ulna
Hinge joint
Figure 30.6_3
Ulna
Radius
Pivot joint
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
AND MOVEMENT
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.7 The skeleton and muscles interact in
movement
 Muscles and bones interact to produce movement.
 Muscles
– are connected to bones by tendons and
– can only contract, requiring an antagonistic muscle to
– reverse the action and
– relengthen muscles.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.7A
Triceps
contracted,
biceps
relaxed
Biceps contracted,
triceps relaxed
(extended)
Biceps
Biceps
Triceps
Tendons
Triceps
30.8 Each muscle cell has its own contractile
apparatus
 Muscle fibers are cells that consist of bundles of
myofibrils. Skeletal muscle cells
– are cylindrical,
– have many nuclei, and
– are oriented parallel to each other.
 Myofibrils contain overlapping
– thick filaments composed primarily of the protein
myosin and
– thin filaments composed primarily of the protein actin.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
30.8 Each muscle cell has its own contractile
apparatus
 Sarcomeres are
– repeating groups of overlapping thick and thin filaments
and
– the contractile unit—the fundamental unit of muscle
action.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.8
Muscle
Several muscle fibers
Single muscle fiber
(cell)
Nuclei
Plasma membrane
Myofibril
Light
band
Dark Light
band band
Z line
Sarcomere
Thick
filaments
(myosin)
Thin
filaments
(actin)
Z line
Sarcomere
Z line
Figure 30.8_1
Muscle
Several muscle fibers
Single muscle fiber
(cell)
Figure 30.8_2
Single muscle fiber
(cell)
Nuclei
Plasma membrane
Myofibril
Light
band
Dark Light
band band
Sarcomere
Z line
Figure 30.8_3
Light
band
Dark Light
band band
Z line
Sarcomere
Thick
filaments
(myosin)
Thin
filaments
(actin)
Z line
Sarcomere
Z line
Figure 30.8_4
30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide
along thick filaments
 According to the sliding-filament model of muscle
contraction, a sarcomere contracts (shortens)
when its thin filaments slide across its thick
filaments.
– Contraction shortens the sarcomere without changing
the lengths of the thick and thin filaments.
– When the muscle is fully contracted, the thin filaments
overlap in the middle of the sarcomere.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.9A
Sarcomere
Dark band
Z
Z
Relaxed muscle
Contracting
muscle
Fully contracted
muscle
Contracted sarcomere
30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide
along thick filaments
 Myosin heads of the thick filaments
– bind ATP and
– extend to high-energy states.
 Myosin heads then
– attach to binding sites on the actin molecules and
– pull the thin filaments toward the center of the
sarcomere.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.9B
Thick filament
Thin
filaments
Z line
Actin
1
Thin
filament
ATP
Myosin head (lowenergy configuration)
ADP
P
Myosin head (highenergy configuration)
Thick
filament
2
3
ADP
P
Cross-bridge
ADP  P
Thin filament moves
toward center of sarcomere.
New
position
of Z line
4
Myosin head (pivoting to
low-energy configuration)
5
ATP
Myosin head (lowenergy configuration)
Figure 30.9B_s1
Thick filament
Thin
filaments
Z line
Figure 30.9B_s2
Thick filament
Thin
filaments
Z line
Actin
1 Thin
filament
Thick
filament
ATP
Myosin head (lowenergy configuration)
Figure 30.9B_s3
Thick filament
Thin
filaments
Z line
Actin
1 Thin
filament
ATP
Myosin head (lowenergy configuration)
ADP
P
Myosin head (highenergy configuration)
Thick
filament
2
Figure 30.9B_s4
3
ADP
P
Cross-bridge
Figure 30.9B_s5
3
ADP
P
Cross-bridge
New
position
Thin filament
of Z line
moves toward center.
ADP  P
4
Myosin head
(pivoting)
Figure 30.9B_s6
3
ADP
P
Cross-bridge
New
position
Thin filament
of Z line
moves toward center.
ADP  P
4
Myosin head
(pivoting)
5
ATP
Myosin head
(low-energy)
30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction
 A motor neuron
– carries an action potential to a muscle cell,
– releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from its
synaptic terminal, and
– initiates a muscle contraction.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.10A
Motor neuron
axon
Mitochondrion
Action potential
Synaptic
terminal
T tubule
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Myofibril
Plasma membrane
Sarcomere
Ca2
released
from ER
30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction
 An action potential in a muscle cell
– passes along T tubules and
– into the center of the muscle fiber.
 Calcium ions
– are released from the endoplasmic reticulum and
– initiate muscle contraction by moving the regulatory
protein tropomyosin away from the myosin-binding sites
on actin.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.10B
Myosin-binding sites blocked
Tropomyosin
Actin
Ca2-binding sites
Troponin complex
Ca2 floods the
cytoplasmic
fluid
Myosin-binding sites exposed
Myosin-binding site
30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction
 A motor unit consists of
– a neuron and
– the set of muscle fibers it controls.
 More forceful muscle contractions result when
additional motor units are activated.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.10C
Motor Motor
unit 1 unit 2
Spinal cord
Nerve
Motor neuron Motor neuron
cell body
axon
Synaptic
terminals
Nuclei
Muscle fibers
(cells)
Muscle
Tendon
Bone
30.11 CONNECTION: Aerobic respiration
supplies most of the energy for exercise
 Aerobic respiration
– requires a constant supply of glucose and oxygen and
– provides most of the ATP used to power muscle
movement during exercise.
 The anaerobic process of lactic acid fermentation
– can provide ATP faster than aerobic respiration but
– is less efficient.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.11
Table 30.11
30.12 CONNECTION: Characteristics of muscle
fiber affect athletic performance
 Depending on the pathway they use to generate
ATP, muscle fibers can be classified as
– slow,
– intermediate, or
– fast.
 Most muscles have a combination of fiber types,
which can be affected by exercise.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Table 30.12
30.12 CONNECTION: Characteristics of muscle
fiber affect athletic performance
 Muscles can adapt to exercise by increasing the
– levels of myoglobin,
– number of mitochondria, and/or
– number of capillaries going to muscles.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Percentage of total muscle
Figure 30.12
100
80
Slow
Intermediate
Fast
60
40
20
0
World- Average Average Middle- World- Extreme
class
couch
active distance class endurance
sprinter potato person runner marathon athlete
runner
You should now be able to
1. Describe the diverse methods of locomotion found
among animals and the forces each method must
overcome.
2. Describe the three main types of skeletons, their
advantages and disadvantages, and provide
examples of each.
3. Describe the common features of terrestrial
vertebrate skeletons, distinguishing between the
axial and appendicular skeletons.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
You should now be able to
4. Describe the complex structure of bone, noting
the major tissues and their relationship to bloodforming tissues.
5. Explain why bones break and how we can help
them heal.
6. Describe three types of joints and provide
examples of each.
7. Explain how muscles and the skeleton interact to
produce movement.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
You should now be able to
8. Explain at the cellular level how a muscle cell
contracts.
9. Explain how a motor neuron signals a muscle
fiber to contract.
10. Describe the role of calcium in a muscle
contraction.
11. Explain how motor units control muscle
contraction.
12. Explain what causes muscle fatigue.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
You should now be able to
13. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic
exercise, noting the advantages of each.
14. Compare the structure and functions of slow,
intermediate, and fast muscle fibers.
© 2012 Parson Education, Inc.
Figure 30.UN01
Figure 30.UN02
Sarcomere
Myosin
Actin
Figure 30.UN03
Animal movement
must overcome
forces of
gravity
and friction
requires both
(a)
types are
hydrostatic
skeleton
(b)
move usually in
parts of
antagonistic
pairs
(c)
units of
contraction
are
(d)
shorten as
endoskeleton
myosin pulls
actin filaments
made of
called
(e)
sliding-filament
model