Download Memory - Mount Psychology

Memory
What the heck is going on in there?
Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves
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Difficulty of Task
• Was the exercise easy or difficult.
It depends on what factors?
•Whether you like Disney movies
•how long ago you watched the movie
•how loud the people are around you when
you are trying to remember
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The Memory process
•Encoding
•Storage
•Retrieval
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Encoding
• The processing of information into the
memory system.
Typing info into a computer
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Getting a girls name at a party
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Storage
• The retention of encoded material
over time.
Pressing Ctrl S and
saving the info.
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Trying to remember her name
when you leave the party.
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Retrieval
• The process of getting the information
out of memory storage.
Finding your document
and opening it up.
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Seeing her the next day
and calling her the wrong
name (retrieval failure). 7
Turn your paper over.
Now pick pick out the seven
dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy
Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy
Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful
Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop
Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach
Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy
Stubby Poopy
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Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
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Did you do better on the first or second dwarf memory
exercise?
Recall v. Recognition
• With recall- you must retrieve the
information from your memory (fill-inthe blank tests).
• With recognition- you must identify the
target from possible targets (multiplechoice tests).
• Which is easier?
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23 : Introd uction
In trodu cti on
Memo ry
27 : Fo rgetting,
Memo ry
Cons truction ,
an d Im proving
24 : En cod ing Getting Info In
In forma tion
Process ing
Memo ry
Lo ss & Feats
26 : Retrieval:
Getting Info Out
25 : Sto rage Reta inin g
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Memoriad 2008
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Records
• Andi Bell – memorizing a single deck of
cards in 34 seconds
• 1840 random digits in one hour
• 23.02 packs of cards in one hour
• 2889 binary digits in 30 minutes
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Case of Clive Wearing
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Flashbulb Memories
Beryl Benderly – “It’s as if our nervous system takes a
multimedia snapshot of the sounds, sights, smells, weather,
emotional climate, even the body postures we experience at
certain moments.”
• Car accident – 85%
• Early romantic experience – 77%
• Speak in front of audience – 72%
• First date – 57%
• 9/11 – 95%
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Memory Process
• Memory - an active system that receives
•
information from the senses, organizes
and alters it as it stores it away, and then
retrieves the information from storage.
Processes of Memory:
– Encoding - the set of mental operations that
people perform on sensory information to convert
that information into a form that is usable in the
brain’s storage systems.
– Storage - holding onto information for some
period of time.
– Retrieval - getting information that is in storage
into a form that can be used.
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LO 6.2
Different models of how memory works
Models of Memory
• Information-processing model - model of memory
that assumes the processing of information for
memory storage is similar to the way a computer
processes memory in a series of three stages.
• Levels-of-processing model - model of memory that
assumes information that is more “deeply
processed,” or processed according to its meaning
rather than just the sound or physical characteristics
of the word or words, will be remembered more
efficiently and for a longer period of time.
• Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model - a model
of memory in which memory processes are proposed
to take place at the same time over a large network
of neural connections.
Menu
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Type s of
Memo ry
Sen sory
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Sho rt Te rm
Lo ng Term
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Sensory Memory
• The immediate, initial recording of sensory
•
information in the memory system.
Stored just for an instant, and most gets
unprocessed.
Examples:
•You lose concentration in class during a lecture. Suddenly you
hear a significant word and return your focus to the lecture. You
should be able to remember what was said just before the key word
since it is in your sensory register.
•Your ability to see motion can be attributed to sensory memory. An
image previously seen must be stored long enough to compare to
the new image. Visual processing in the brain works like watching
a cartoon -- you see one frame at a time.
•If someone is reading to you, you must be able to remember the
words at the beginning of a sentence in order to understand the
sentence as a whole. These words are held in a relatively
unprocessed
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sensory memory.
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Short-Term Memory
• Memory that holds a few items
briefly.
• Seven digits (plus of minus two).
• The info will be stored into long-term
ordoforgotten.
How
you store things from short-term to long-term?
Rehearsal
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You must repeat things over
and over to put them into
your long-term memory.
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Working Memory
(Modern day STM)
• Another way of describing the use
of short-term memory is called
working memory.
• Working-Memory has three parts:
1. Audio
2. Visual
3. Integration of audio and visual
(controls where you attention lies)
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Long-Term Memory
• The relatively permanent and
limitless storehouse of the memory
system.
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Oops, Retrieval Failure
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24: Encoding
23 : Introd uction
Encodi ng
Mnem onic
Devices
How we e nco de
Wh at we encode
Memo ry
24 : En cod ing Getting Info In
Rehe rsal
Seri al Po siti on
Effect
Vi sual vs
Au dito ry
In forma tion
27 : Fo rgetting,
Memo ry
Cons truction ,
an d Im proving
Mean ing
Sel f
Refe rence
26 : Retrieval:
Getting Info Out
25 : Sto rage Reta inin g
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Clive 13 years later Clive
Wearing
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How We Encode
• Rehearsal
– Write down each of the gifts from The
Twelve Days of Christmas
• Demonstrate the forgetting curve
using the data collected
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ping
ers D
rumm
ing
x
Dr um
m
x
Piper
s Pip
ing
A-lea
g
x
Lo rds
Da nc
in
ing
x
La die
s
iling
s A- s
w imm
Maid
s A-m
Swan
-lay in
g
Rings
Bird s
Gee s
eA
Gold
en
Ca llin
g
x
Fre n
ch H
ens
Do ve
s
30
12
11
27
10
24
21
9
18
8
15
7
12
6
5x
9
4
6
3
2
0
1
0
Tur tle
Partr
idg e
Impact of Rehearsal
x
x
x
x
x
x
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Serial Position Effect
• Write down as many Presidents as
you can.
• Distinguish between same last
names
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What we encode • Visual vs Auditory
• Activity – 24-1
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What we encode • Meaning and Memory Activity
– Right half of room – heads down
– Left half take a look at this slide
• Remember 24-3?
– Reproduce the two figures
– Compare the drawings with the actual figures
– The semantic and visual encoding endured
longer
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Mnemonic Devices
• Method of loci
• First letter technique
– Richard of York Gains Battles in Vain
• Colors of spectrum
– My Very Earnest Mother Just Showed Us
Nine Planets
• Planets in Solar System
– On Old Olympia’s Towering Top A Finn
and German Vault and Hop
5/23/2017 • Cranial Nerves
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Cranial Nerves
• Olfactory, optic, oculomoter,
trochlear, tirgeminal, abducens,
facial, auditory, glossophyngeal,
vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal
• Check out:
• www.happychild.org.uk/acc/tpr/mn
e/index.htm
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• The Context is Kite Flying
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Good Morning!
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Remember – rules of behavior?
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Storage: Retaining Information
23 : Introd uction
Sto rage:
Reta inin g
In forma tion
Type s of
Memo ry
Sto rage
Syste ms
Memo ry
27 : Fo rgetting,
Epi sodi c
Memo ry
Cons truction ,
an d Im proving
24 : En cod ing Getting Info In
Sen sory
Memo ry
Sem anti c
Sho rt-Term
Memo ry
Lo ng-Te rm
Memo ry
26 : Retrieval:
Getting Info Out
Procedu ral
25 : Sto rage Reta inin g
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Storage
Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts
and further subdivided into categories and
subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Chunks
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Organization
Hierarchies
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Storage-Short Term Memory
Short Term
Memory
Percentage
who recalled 90
consonants 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
– limited in
duration and
capacity
– “magical”
number 7+/2
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
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Storage- Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
– the immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system
Iconic Memory
– a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
– a photographic or picture image memory lasting no
more than a few tenths of a second
– Registration of exact representation of a scene
Echoic Memory
– momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
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Storage--Long Term Memory
Synaptic changes
– Long-term Potentiation
• increase in synapse’s firing potential after
brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger
memories
– some stress hormones boost learning
and retention
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Storage- Long Term Memory
Amnesia- the loss of memory
Explicit Memory
– memory of facts and
experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
– Also called declarative memory
– hippocampus- neural center in
limbic system that helps
process explicit memories for
storage
Implicit Memory
– retention without conscious
recollection
– motor and cognitive skills
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– dispositions- conditioning
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Storage- Long Term Memory
Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
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Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositionsclassical and
operant
conditioning
effects
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Quick Review
• What are the 3 processes?
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The Memory process
•Encoding
•Storage
•Retrieval
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Quick Review
• What are the 3 theories?
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LO 6.2
Different models of how memory works
Models of Memory
• Information-processing model
• Levels-of-processing model
• Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Menu
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Quick Review
• What are the 3 types of memory?
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Type s of
Memo ry
Sen sory
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Sho rt Te rm
Lo ng Term
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Quick Review
• What are the 3 storage systems?
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Sto rage:
Reta inin g
In forma tion
Epi sodi c
Sto rage
Syste ms
Type s of
Memo ry
Sem anti c
Sen sory
Memo ry
Sho rt-Term
Memo ry
Lo ng-Te rm
Memo ry
Procedu ral
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End of Mod 25
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StorageLong Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
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Retrieval Cues
Recall
*the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not
in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test
Recognition
*the ability to identify previously learned itemslike on a multiple choice test
Relearning
*amount of time saved when relearning
previously learned information
Priming
*activation, often unconsciously, of particular
associations in memory
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Retrieval Cues
*Reminders of information we could
not otherwise recall
*Guides to where to look for info
– Context Effects
• memory works better in the context of
original learning
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Retrieval Cues
Percentage of
words recalled
40
30
20
10
0
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Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts for
hearing and recall
Water/
water
Land/
land
Same contexts for
hearing and recall
60
Retrieval Cues
Mood Congruent Memory
– tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one’s current mood
– memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval
cues
• State Dependent Memory
• what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in
same state
Deja Vu- (French) already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before"
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Retrieval Cues
After learning to
move a mobile by
kicking, infants had
their learning
reactivated most
strongly when
retested in the
same rather than a
different context
(Butler & RoveeCollier, 1989).
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Forgetting--Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia
*inability to form memories for new information
*new experiences slip away from a person before
they have a chance to store them in long-term
memory. (Clive Wearing or H.M.)
*H.M. (Initials for man with brain operation where
hippocampus and amygdala removed…..crucial to laying
down new episodic memories)
Retrograde Amnesia
*inability to remember information previously
stored in memory.
*causes include: blow to head, electric shock to the brain
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According to Daniel Schacter, most of our memory
problems arise from the SEVEN SINS of
MEMORY.
Three Sins of Forgetting
1) Transcience
2) Absent-mindedness
3) Blocking
Three Sins of Distortion
4) Misattribution
5) Suggestibility
6) Bias
One Sin of Intrusion
7) Persistence
Sin of forgetting
1) TRANSCIENCE
*Memories weaken with time
*Hermann Ebbinghaus (1908) learned
lists of nonsense syllables and tried to
recall them over time.
(1850-1909)
*Studied history and philology at the universities of
Bonn, Halle and Berlin
*University of Bonn, Ph.D. in philosophy (1873)
*Independent post-doctoral study in England, France
and Germany
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Sin of forgetting
1) TRANSCIENCE
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning
Ebbinghausforgetting
curve over 30
days --
60
50
40
initially
rapid, then
levels off
with time
30
20
10
0
12345
10
15
20
25
30
Time in days since learning list
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Sin of forgetting
1) TRANSCIENCE
The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Percentage of 100%
original
90
vocabulary
80
retained
70
Retention
drops,
60
then levels off
50
40
30
20
10
0
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1 3 5
9½
14½
25
35½
49½
Time in years after completion of Spanish course
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Sin of forgetting
1) TRANSCIENCE
CONCLUSION:
For relatively meaningless material,
there is a rapid initial loss of memory,
followed by a declining rate of loss.
HOWEVER, some memories don’t follow the classic
forgetting curve.
“Just like riding a bicycle”, is a phase which indicates that
motor skill memories are often retained for many years.
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Sin of forgetting
2) ABSENT-MINDEDNESS: Lapses of Attention
Forgetting as encoding failure
*Information never enters the
memory system
*Attention is selective
– we cannot attend to everything
in our environment
*William James said that we
would be as bad off if we
remembered everything as we
would be if we remembered
nothing
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Retrieval failure
caused by shifting
your attention
elsewhere. (ie) not
paying attention
when you laid your
keys down
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Sin of forgetting
2) ABSENT-MINDEDNESS: Lapses of Attention
Attention
External
events
Short- Encoding
Sensory
term
memory Encoding
memory
Longterm
memory
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting
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Sin of forgetting
3) BLOCKING: Interference Causes Forgetting
*Proactive Interference
*Retroactive Interference
*Serial Position Effect …first and last parts of a poem
are easier to remember or you are more likely to remember
the names of those people you meet first and last than those
in between.
Percentage
of
words
recalled
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90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4Position
5 6of word
7 8in 9
list
10 11 12
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Sin of forgetting
3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting
Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
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Proactive (forward acting) Interference
…disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new
information
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Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old
information
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Sin of forgetting
3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting
Retroactive Interference
Percentage
of syllables
recalled
90%
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
80
After sleep
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
After remaining awake
0
1
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2
3
4
5
6
7
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
8
75
Forgetting--Interference
Motivated Forgetting
*people unknowingly revise history
Repression
*defense mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and
memories
Positive Transfer
*sometimes old information facilitates our
learning of new information
*knowledge of Latin may help us to learn
French
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Sin of forgetting
3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting
 Forgetting
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can occur at
any memory
stage
 As we
process
information,
we filter,
alter, or lose
much of it
77
Sin of forgetting
3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting
Sensory memory - the senses momentarily
register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are
both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some items
are altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory depending on interference, retrieval cues
moods and motives, some things get
retrieved, some don’t.
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Information bits
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Sin of Distortion
4) MISATTRIBUTION: Memories in Wrong Context
*sometimes memories are retrievable but are associated
with the wrong time, place, or person.
CASE: Psychologist David Thompson was accused
of rape, based on victim’s detailed description of her
assailant. Fortunately, Thompson had an
indisputable alibi. At the time of the crime, he was
being interviewed live on television--about memory
distortions. The victim had been watching the
interview just before she was raped and had
misattributed the assault to Thompson.
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Forgetting as
encoding failure
Which penny is the
real thing? (a)
When retrieving the image of a
penny, we automatically fill in
the gaps and missing details-without realizing how much of
the memory we are actually
creating.
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Sin of Distortion
5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create
Witnesses to crimes may be interviewed by police, who
might make suggestions about the facts of the case-deliberately or intentionally--which may impact the
testimony of the witness.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) set out
test their hypothesis that the
language used in eyewitness
testimony can alter memory. So
they aimed to show that leading
questions could distort accounts
of events, therefore making
them unreliable.
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Sin of Distortion
5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create
Participants were shown slides
of a car accident involving a
Estimating the
number of cars and were then speed of a car is
asked to describe what had
generally something
happened as if they were
that people are poor
eyewitnesses.They were then at doing, suggesting
asked specific questions,
that they may have
including the question "About been MORE OPEN
how fast were the cars going TO SUGGESTION.
when they (hit/smashed/
collided/bumped/contacted the five conditions) each
other?"
This distortion of memory is known as the
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MISINFORMATION EFFECT.
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Sin of Distortion
5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create
Depiction of actual accident
Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
memories when
questioned
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
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Sin of Distortion
5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create
Loftus then did research on FABRICATED
MEMORY. She contacted parents of college
students and gained TRUE information of
childhood events, which the students were
asked to recall. Loftus then added FALSE,
but plausible, events.
After many recall attempts
over a series of days,
many students claimed to
recall the contrived events.
This research would lead other researchers to discuss
the RECOVERED MEMORY CONTROVERY, wherein
some psychologists may use suggestion techniques to
create false recovered memories.
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Most experts agree on the following:
1) Sexual abuse of children does occur at a rate more prevalent
than suspected a generation ago. (McAnulty & Burnette, 2004)
2) Memories cued by suggestion are vulnerable to distortion and
fabrication. (Loftus, 2003)
3) Memories from infancy or early children are likely to be fastasies
or misattributions. (Schacter, 1996)
4) There is no infallible way to be sure about abusive memories
without supporting evidence. (Ceci & Bruck, 1993)
5) Although traumatic events can be forgotten, they are more likely
to form persistent, intrusive memories. Such events can
permanently alter the structure of the hippocampus. (Teicher,
2002)
6) There is no solid evidence for repression, in the Freudian sense
of an unconscious memory. (Schacter, 1996)
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Sin of Distortion
5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create
People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses
and assumptions
Imagining events can create false memories
Children's eyewitness recall
– Child sexual abuse does occur
– Some innocent people suffer false accusations
– Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony
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Sin of Distortion
5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create
Memories of Abuse
– Repressed or Constructed?
• Child sexual abuse does occur
• Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
– condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but
strongly believed memory of traumatic
experience
– sometimes induced by well-meaning
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Sin of Distortion
5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create
Most people can agree on the following:
– Injustice happens
– Incest happens
– Forgetting happens
– Recovered memories are commonplace
– Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are
unreliable
– Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
– Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
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Sin of Distortion
6) BIAS: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions Distort Memories
Influence of personal beliefs,
attitudes and experiences on
memory:
*Expectancy Bias -unconscious tendency to
remember events as being
congruent with our
expectations.
*Self-Consistency Bias -avoid inconsistency.
Emotions can distort our
memories.
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Sin of Intrusion
7) PERSISTENCE: When We Can’t Forget
Sometimes memory works all
too well when
*intense negative emotions
are involved
*intrusive recollections of
unpleasant events lie at the
heart of several psychological
disorders.
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Memory Construction
We filter information and fill in missing
pieces
Misinformation Effect
– incorporating misleading information
into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
– attributing to the wrong source an event
that we experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined (misattribution)
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27: Forgetting, Memory
Construction, and Improving
Memory
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
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Storage Decay
Retrieval Failure
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Forgetting: Encoding Failure –
Change Blindness
• Failure to detect changes in objects
or scenes that occur over time
• Change Blindness Experiments
– Changes in the scene
– Levin and Simons Experiment –
Directions
– Focus on the number of passes
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Penny
• Draw both sides of a penny
• Score 1 for
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Words ONE PENNY
Words UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Words ONE NATION UNDER GOD
Right side of Washington’s face
Words ONE CENT
Date of mint (year)
Words LINCOLN MEMORIAL
Number 1 centered
Full face of Lincoln
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Forgetting
 Forgetting as
encoding failure
 Which penny is
the real thing?
 Penny Activity
We do not encode
information we don’t
consider
useful
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• Median = 3
• 4 of 20 got 50%
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• Standard telephone dial has ten
numbers but only 24 letters – what is
missing?
• What is color of the top stripe of the
American flag? Bottom stripe? How
many red and how many white?
• Most wooden pencils have how many
sides?
• In what hand does the Statue of
Liberty hold her torch?
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Retrieval
Forgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term
memory
Attention
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Encoding
Short-term
Long-term
memory
memory
Retrieval
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
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The technical term for “photographic memory” is
EIDETIC IMAGERY.
Eidetic Imagery portrays the most interesting and
meaningful parts of the scene most accurately, as
compared with a photograph which renders everything in
complete detail.
*possessed by about 5% of children.
*very rare past adolescence.
To produce an eidetic image, a person must
*study a scene for some time
*actively concentrate on this scene
*images fade quickly when the attention is diverted to
something
else.
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IMPROVING
YOUR MEMORY
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Improve Your Memory
*Study repeatedly to boost recall
*Spend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the material
(SQ3R)
(study, question, read, recite, review)
*Make material personally meaningful
*Use mnemonic devices
– associate with peg words- something
already stored
– make up story
– chunk-acronyms
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Improve Your Memory
*Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate
situation and mood
*Recall events while they are fresh- write down
before interference
*Minimize interference
*Test your own knowledge
– rehearse
– determine what you do not yet know
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MNEMONICS:
*Method of Loci (low-sye): Imagine a familiar sequence of
places (bed, desk, chair)……to remember a grocery list,
imagine tuna on the bed, shampoo spilled on the desk, and
eggs open on the chair.
*Natural Language Mediators: make up a story using your
list….(i..e.) The cat discovers I’m out of tuna so she
interrupts me while I’m using shampoo and meows to egg
me on.” OR
The teacher who used rhymes to remember (“i before e
except after c”) (“thirty days hath September….)
*Remembering Names: You might visualize Bob’s face in
a big “O” or Ann, you might visualize “Queen Ann sitting on
a throne.”
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