Download Long-Term Memory

Chapter 9-Human Memory
 Memory
Constructed
 Flashbulb
 Old
memory
teaching:
 New understanding
Car Accident video
3 Questions to begin this chapter:
How does information get into
memory?
Encoding
How is information maintained
in memory?
Storage
How is information pulled back
out of memory?
Retrieval
3
processes of memory
Requires attention
Encoding
Storage
Maintains encoded information
in memory over time.
What factors help or hinder
memory storage?
Recovering information from memory
stores.
Why are some strategies better than
others?
Retrieval
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING
Encoding
 Info
about space, time and
frequency
 Did
you see me earlier today?
 What did you eat this morning?
 Other examples?
Only one of these images of a penny is
correct. Which one is it?
EFFORTFUL PROCESSING
Encoding
Attention
focuses awareness on a narrow
range of stimuli or events
Divided Attention
Encoding
EFFORTFUL
Encoding
 Rehearsal
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer
repetitions to relearn on Day 2
(Amount remembered depends on amount of
time spent learning)
Ebbinghaus Curve
5
Minute University
EFFORTFUL
Encoding
Next-in-line-effect
 Over learning

More rehearsal
More learning
 588-2300 _________?


Spacing
5 X in one month vs. once a month for 5
months?
 Implications for studying?

Effortful
Encoding
Serial Position Effect
Percent
age of
words
recalle
d
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Primacy=tenden
cy to recall
better the first
items in a list
Recency=tende
ncy to recall
better last items
in list
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
Position of
word in list
9
10 11 12
WHAT WE ENCODE
 Meaning—Visual
 Droodles
Encoding
WHAT WE ENCODE
Use visual imagery
Truth
It’s easier to do with some words than with others
‘Dual coding theory’-memory enhanced by forming
semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall
Juggler
WHAT WE ENCODE
 Meaning—Acoustic
 “Sounds
like….”
 “Rhymes with…”
Encoding
WHAT WE ENCODE
 Meaning—Semantic
O
TTFFSSENT
 Thunstofam
Encoding
Try to recall this description of an
activity

http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/daniel_kahn
eman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory.
html
WHAT WE ENCODE
“How is information personally
relevant?”
This seems to create additional
elaboration and better organization
of information
WHAT WE ENCODE
Linking a stimulus
to other
information at the
time of encoding
Self-generated examples are
the best
WHAT WE ENCODE
Encoding
Mnemonic devices enhance encoding
 Method
of Loci
 “Yo Sacramento”
 Acronym (Roy G. Biv)
 HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan,
Erie, Superior
 Link system (dog, envelope, thirteen,
yarn, window)
Storage

ORGANIZATION-Chunking
 organizing items into familiar, manageable
units
 like horizontal organization—
1776149218121941

Phone numbers
often occurs automatically


RA INHE LPSF ARM ERSG RO WCRO PS

Giraffe, Parsnip, Zebra, Radish, Diver,
Broker, Spinach, Baker, Woodchuck,
Dancer, Weasel, Pumpkin, Amos, Typist,
Byron, Plumber, Moses, Cabbage,
Sherman, Waiter, Bernard, Carrot, Leopard,
Printer, Otto, Noah, Chipmunk, Adam,
Chemist, Turnip, Simon, Howard, Milkman,
Gerard, Panther, Oswald, Druggist,
Reindeer, Owen, Parsley, Otter, Grocer,
Badger, Camel , Baboon, Florist, Rhubarb,
Melon, Mustard , Wallace, Dentist, Muskrat,
Mushroom, Lettuce, Donkey, Blacksmith,
Eggplant, Garlic, Wildcat, Jason.
WHAT WE ENCODE
 Organization—Hierarchies
 Inspiration
software
Encoding
STORAGE-Maintaining
information in memory
Information processing theories are
metaphors for functionally distinct types
of memory
rehearsal
Storage
Sensory input
Attention
retrieval
Sensory memory
Short term
memory
Long term
memory
STORAGE
Preserves information in it’s original sensory
form for a brief time.
PSYCHSIM 5-Sperling experiment
Sensory input
Sensory memory
STORAGE
Preserves information in it’s original
sensory form for a brief time.
1-Iconic
Sensory input
2-echoic
Sensory memory
STORAGE
Short-term memory-A limited
capacity store that can maintain
unrehearsed information for about
20 seconds
Attention
Short term
memory
STORAGE
Short-term
“Magic Number” = Simon?
Attention
Short term
memory
STORAGE
 working
memory
 Central
executive: controls our
attention and coordinates working
memory for a specific task
 Phonological loop: stores and utilizes
semantic (word) information
 Visuo-spatial sketchpad: stores and
utilizes speech based information
STORAGE
You can maintain information in STM
indefinitely by rehearsal
Until you get distracted…..
rehearsal
Attention
Short term
memory
Storage:
Long-Term Memory


How does storage work?
Synaptic changes

Long-term Potentiation


increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief,
rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger
memories

some stress hormones boost learning and
retention
Storage:
Long-Term Memory

MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Storage:
Long-Term Memory



Amnesia--the loss of memory Clive Wearing
Explicit Memory Clive wearing 2
 memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
 also called declarative memory
 hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that
helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory
 retention independent of conscious recollection
 also called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term Memory
Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositionsclassical and
operant
conditioning
effects
Retrieval: Getting
Information Out



Recall
 measure of memory in which the person must retrieve
information learned earlier
 as on a fill-in-the blank test
Recognition
 Measure of memory in which the person has only to
identify items previously learned
 as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning
 memory measure that assesses the amount of time
saved when learning material a second time
Retrieval Cues


Deja Vu (French)--already seen
 cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger
retrieval of an earlier similar experience
 "I've experienced this before."
Mood-congruent Memory
 tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s
current mood
 memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
 State-dependent Memory
 what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
state
Retrieval Cues
Percentage of
words recalled
40
30
20
10
0
Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts for
hearing and recall
Water/
water
Land/
land
Same contexts for
hearing and recall
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Retrieval
Forgotten information feels like it’s ‘right there’, but you
can’t quite get it
Ultimate puzzle:
Why do people forget??
The woman who couldn’t forget
Forgetting

Forgetting as encoding failure

Information never enters the longterm memory Attention
External
events
Short- Encoding
Sensory
term
memory Encoding
memory
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting
Longterm
memory
Retrieval

Forgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term
memory
Attention
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Encoding
Short-term
Long-term
memory
Retrieval memory
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Forgetting as
Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of
other information
 Proactive (forward acting) Interference
 disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
 Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
 disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
Forgetting as
Interference
Forgetting

Retroactive Interference
Percentage
of syllables
recalled
90%
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
80
After sleep
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
After remaining awake
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
8
Forgetting


Forgetting
can occur at
any memory
stage
As we
process
information,
we filter,
Memory Construction




We filter information and fill in missing
pieces
Misinformation Effect
 incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
 attributing to the wrong source an event
that we experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined (misattribution)
Eyewitness testimony
Memory Construction
Depiction of actual accident

Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
memories when
questioned
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Memory Construction


Memories of Abuse
 Repressed or Constructed?
 Child sexual abuse does occur
 Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
 condition in which a person’s identity and relationships
center around a false but strongly believed memory of
traumatic experience
 sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory Construction

Most people can agree on the following:
 Injustice happens
 Incest happens
 Forgetting happens
 Recovered memories are commonplace
 Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are
especially unreliable
 Memories of things happening before age 3 are
unreliable
 Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Improve Your Memory




Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking
about the material
Make material personally meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
 associate with peg words--something already
stored
 make up story
 chunk--acronyms
Improve Your Memory




Activate retrieval cues--mentally
recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh-before you encounter misinformation
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
 rehearse
 determine what you do not yet
know