Download Biol 2022 Spring 2017 Study Guide Exam 1 Lecture 1 Definition of a

Biol 2022 Spring 2017 Study Guide Exam 1
Lecture 1
Definition of a plant.
Definition of an autotroph, what it means to be an autotroph compared to a heterotroph
Three domains of life archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote domains, which domains are plants and
animals in? which domain is basal to eukaryotes?
Define endosymbiosis, which organelles were acquired by endosymbiosis? Are all plant cells
the result of endosymbiosis?
Considering out definition of plants, what are the earliest plants? Land plants evolve from
algae. On the plant phylogenetic tree point out which algae are basal to land plants.
Many differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Some characteristics of plants.
Chemistry review:
Define an ion, define anions and cations, give a couple examples.
Define a mole. Define molecular weight. Know the following metric units molar (M), millimolar
(mM), micromolar (µm) and nanomolar (nM). From the molecular weight, concentration and
volume of a solution, you should be able to calculate how much of a chemical to weigh out. For
example: make 200 ml of a 100 mM solution of sodium chloride (MW = 58.44).
58.4 g/mole * 0.1 moles/liter * 0.2 liters = 1.17g of NaCl
Properties of water, due to its polarity, that are important for its role in biology.
Lecture 2
Definition of pH. Be able to calculate the concentration of H+ at a particular pH. And vice versa,
if given a proton concentration, be able to calculate the pH.
Definition of carbohydrates, chemicals that contain C, H, O usually in a ratio of 1:2:1. Hydrates
of carbon. Give several examples present in plants.
Define cellulose: Cellulose is  1,4 linked glucose
Define starch: Starch is  1,4 linked glucose
Main differences between plant and animal cells.
Cell walls, primary and secondary.
Four main components of cell walls, know what they are made of, such as cellulose is  1,4
linked glucose, and where they are synthesized.
ER and Golgi, the main organelles responsible for synthesizing cell wall components and also
delivering then to the cell wall space (also known as the apoplast).
For all of the cellular components, you should know their main function.
Plasma membrane, examples of proteins located there, some are glycosylated – where does
that happen? What side of the membrane is the glycosylation on?
Cellulose synthase – what is it? where is it located? What is its function?
Secretory pathway from ER to Golgi to the plasma membrane. Delivers cell wall components by
exocytosis and also delivers plasma membrane proteins to the plasma membrane.
How secreted proteins are synthesized at the ER by ribosomes. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is used
as a template for protein synthesis (translation). Proteins are inserted through the ER
membrane into the ER lumen and from there they go to the Golgi and then to the plasma
membrane.
ER = endoplasmic reticulum. The ER has many functions, it is a membrane network,
Plasmodesmata describe their function and structure
Define symplast and apoplast.
The nuclear envelope is a double bilayer membrane that is continuous with the ER and contains
nuclear pores.
The Golgi: its functions in carbohydrate synthesis, location within the cell, and functions.
Many vacuole functions.
The cytoskeleton. What are microtubules and microfibers made of? Name the one type of
motor protein that moves on microfibers and two types that move on microtubules.
One example of cytoskeleton function in plant cells is movement of chloroplasts within cells in
response to light.
Lecture 3
Wild type plants have chloroplast movement in response to bright light. The
thrumin mutant, lacks this. Chloroplast movement is dependent on the actin cytoskeleton.
Chloroplast structure: three membranes, outer membrane, inner membrane and the thylakoid
membrane.
The light reactions cause acidification of the thylakoid lumen and that form of stored energy
(the pH gradient) is used to generate ATP in the stroma by the ATP synthase.
Common features of chloroplasts and mitochondria. Both are the products of endosymbiosis,
both divide by fission (as in bacteria), both have circular chromosomal DNA (as in bacteria)
located in the stroma/matrix, both depend on the import of nuclear encoded proteins.
Thylakoid membranes have stacked and unstacked regions. Chloroplasts store starch in the
stroma
There are six types of plastids, each has a function.
Mitochondria also use a proton gradient to generate ATP in the matrix (equivalent of the
stroma). Mitochondria have only two membranes, the inner membrane and the outer
membrane.
The main function of chloroplasts is photosynthesis, also chlorophyll and fatty acid synthesis.
The main function of mitochondria is respiration.
Plant of the day – ginkgo is a deciduous gymnosperm, it is dioecious (has separate male and
female plants). In its leaves the veins have dichotomous branching.
Define mitosis.
Define cytokinesis.
In the cell cycle in which phase does DNA replication occur?
Put the following in order: metaphase, prophase, telophase, anaphase
Define endoreduplication. How is it related to plant development?
A preprophase band of microtubules forms before prophase that marks the plane of cell
division it disappears in prophase.
Know the basic events of each phase in the cell cycle:
Prophase: chromosomes condense, chromatids held together by centromere, preprophase
band disappears, nuclear envelope disappears, spindle develops
Metaphase: chromosomes align on the equatorial plane of cell division. The spindle apparatus
(microtubules) is assembled and attached to the kinetochores (containing motor proteins).
Anaphase: chromatids move on the spindle fibers toward the poles.
Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms. Cell plate forms between the separated nuclei. This
starts by the formation of a phragmoplast that will form the new cell wall.
Define phragmoplast. What structures are made by the phragmoplast?
Microtubules are important for several structures in cell division: preprophase band, spindle
apparatus, and phragmoplast
The zygote is the first diploid cell, it is produced by fusion of the sperm and egg which are both
haploid. The process for producing haploid gametes necessary for fertilization is call meiosis.
Meiosis is two divisions without an intervening S phase resulting in four haploid cells.
Where does cell division occur in plants?
Define meristem, growth and cell differentiation.
What are the three primary meristems and what tissues do they produce?
Name two secondary meristems.
Define the three basic cell types in plants: collenchyma, parenchyma and schlerenchyma.
What are the two types of vascular tissue? And what are their functions?
Name two similarities of xylem and phloem and two differences.
Lecture 4
Bald cypress is a deciduous gymnosperm that is adapted to swampy areas and produces
“knees” – roots that protrude into the air – to obtain oxygen.
Root hairs are epidermal projections.
There are two types of cell growth in plants, what are they?
Name two specialized cell types that grow by tip growth.
What controls the direction of diffuse cell growth.
Name the cell wall protein that is responsible for acid-induced stress relaxation.
Define primary growth
Name the three primary meristems.
What is phylotaxy?
Draw opposite and alternate leave patterns.
Name of pattern with leaves in two rows _____________.
Name of pattern with leaves in four rows _______________.
Is opposite decussate a possible pattern?
Primary phloem and xylem are present in vascular bundles. Which is oriented towards the
outside in stems? Which is oriented towards the top of leaves?
Describe the similarities and differences between xylem and phloem.
Describe the similarities and differences between vascular tissue in plants vs. animals.
In the eudicot root, vascular tissue is found in a central vascular cylinder. Draw the typical
arrangement of xylem and phloem.
What is turgor pressure, how is it generated? And name a few plant processes that depend on
turgor pressure.
Do open or closed stomata have guard cells with higher turgor pressure?
Corms, tubers, bulbs, and rhizomes are modified stems that function in storage. Give an
example plant for each of these modified stems.
What is another name for a runner, a modified stem that allows plants such as strawberry to
explore different habitats?
Lecture 5
Give one example of nutation in plants.
What are the parts of a leaf?
In monocots, distinctive structures are present where the blade of the leaf meets the sheath,
name two of them.
What is the main function of leaves? Why are they flat? What is the function of the petiole?
What is transpiration? Why is transpiration important for plants?
Describe the difference between simple leaves and compound leaves. Name one structure that
is present in compound leaves but absent from simple leaves.
What is heterophylly? Name one plant that exhibits heterophylly.
Name one type of leaf margin.
Describe the difference in leaf venation between monocots and dicots.
What are the functions of leaf veins?
The bundle sheath is a layer of cells surrounding veins in the leaf, what are its functions?
The two most important gasses that exchange between the leaf and the atmosphere are water
vapor and carbon dioxide. Do they generally move into the leaf or from the leaf to the
atmosphere?
Is water vapor a gas or a liquid?
Name three specialized types of epidermal cells.
Name two types of mesophyll cells.
What is the purpose of the cuticle? Is it a layer of cells?
In general are stomata present at a higher density on the upper surface or lower surface of
leaves?
What is the function of trichomes? What are trichomes?
Leaf development responds to the intensity of light. Are leaves of plants grown under higher
intensity light generally thinner or thicker?
What is the purpose of sunken stomata?
Do plants adapted to low moisture conditions have more or less air space inside their leaves?
Are cactus spines trichomes or modified leaves?
Are tendrils modified leaves or modified stems?
What is the leaf abscission layer?
Name a couple differences between the leaves of flowering plants and the leaves of conifers.
Lecture 6
What observation about our tree of the day, Joshua tree, makes scientists think that it may
have co-evolved with the now-extinct giant ground sloth?
What kinds of plants have secondary growth?
Ferns?
Gymnosperms?
Monocots?
Dicots?
Name two secondary meristems and the tissues that they produce.
Bark includes all tissues outside of the vascular cambium: secondary phloem, phelloderm, cork
cambium and phellem. So the cork cambium and the cells it produces makes up most of the
bark.
Phellem and phelloderm: which of these is oriented toward the outside of the cork cambium?
Which of these is alive at maturity?
What is the periderm?
What is the difference between the fascicular and interfascicular cambium?
If you wanted to find the primary phloem and primary xylem in a stem that has had 1 year of
secondary growth, where would you look?
Where does the vascular cambium form?
Wood is mostly ________.
What are some differences between tracheids and vessel elements?
What are some functions of rays in wood?
What is the difference between heartwood and sapwood. Name one similarity.
You are looking at some wood and see tracheids but no vessel elements, what kind of plant is it
from?
What is the difference between dendrochronology and dendroclimatology?
Are there any monocots with secondary growth?
Lecture 7
Define photosynthesis.
Explain the purpose of the experiment by T.W. Engelmann who used a prism to illuminate
filamentous algae.
What is the name of the enzyme that makes ATP in chloroplasts? What energy source does that
enzyme use to make ATP?
Name the two main parts of photosynthesis.
What are two main products of the light reactions? What is one more waste product of the
light reactions?
What are the two main functions of the carbon reactions?
Where do the light reactions take place?
Where do the carbon reactions take place?
Where does the oxygen that is evolved in photosynthesis come from?
Where do the electrons come from for the photosynthetic electron transport chain?
ATP is made in which compartment in the chloroplast?
Name the three places in the photosynthetic electron transport chain that generate the proton
gradient across the thylakoid membrane.
The carbon reactions are dependent on the light reactions – please explain.
What is the terminal electron acceptor in the photosynthetic electron transport chain?
Van Helmont planted a willow branch that weighed 5 lbs in 200 lbs of soil. In 5 years, after only
adding water, the willow grew to 169 lbs but the soil weight
remained the same. Where did most of the increase in weight of the willow come from?
In C3 photosynthesis, what 5 carbon sugar is carboxylated? By what enzyme? Where in the
chloroplast does this happen?
Name of the person who got the Nobel prize in 1961 “for his research on the carbon dioxide
assimilation in plants" where did he go to college?
Lecture 8
Triose phosphates are products of photosynthesis and they carry fixed carbon. What is one fate
of triose phosphates in the chloroplast? What is one fate for triose phosphtaes in the
cytoplasm.
How do triose phosphates get from the chloroplast to the cytoplasm?
In the chloroplast, where is starch made and what is the name of the final enzyme in the starch
biosynthesis pathway?
Where is sucrose synthesized? What is the name of the final enzyme in the sucrose synthesis
pathway?
What is sucrose?
What is photorespiration?
Normal carboxylation of RuBP yields two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA). How many
carbons does 3-PGA have? What are the products if Rubisco acts as an oxygenase?
Why are C3 plants more efficient at cooler temperatures? Why are C4 plants more efficient at
hot temperatures?
In C4 plants with Kranz anatomy, The Calvin cycle occurs in what type of cells?
In C4 plants what molecule serves as the substrate for primary carboxylation? And what
enzyme performs primary carboxylation?
In C4 plants with Kranz anatomy such as maize, in what cells does primary carboxylation take
place? What is transferred to the bundle sheath cells?
In CAM plants what is the source of PEP for carboxylation at night?
In CAM plants, what is the source of CO2 for the Calvin cycle during the day?
In CAM plants, why is malate stored in the vacuole?
Nutrient and water transport in plants.
What is the main function of the Casparian strip? Where is it located? Is it in the symplast or the
apoplast?
Lecture 9
Know the components of water potential and that it deterimines the direction of water
transport. Water always moves towards an area with lower (more negative) water potential.
Yw = Ys + Yp + Yg
What determines solute potential? By definition solute potential is zero or negative.
Pressure potential can be either positive or negative. By definition an open container has a
pressure potential of zero.
What controls the rate of water transport across membranes? Aquaporins.
Peter Agre discovered aquaporins and got the Nobel prize for that work.
What is an aquaporin? It is a membrane protein that acts like a selective pore to allow water to
cross membranes.
What three factors control the rate of water movement through a tube?
Define cavitation and describe why it is detrimental to xylem function.
Explain what causes guttation (positive pressure in the xylem).
Explain what causes the positive pressure in the phloem that is necessary for the movement of
phloem sap from source tissue to sink tissue.
The Münch hypothesis describes how positive pressure drives phloem transport.
Name three functions of roots.
What is an epiphyte?
Name the three developmental zones in the root (zone of cell division, zone of cell elongation
and zone of maturation). Root hairs are produced in which zone?
The pericycle is the outermost layer of the vascular cylinder, cells of the pericycle are derived
from the procambium.
The endodermis is the innermost layer of the cortex, so the endodermis is derived from the
ground meristem.
Where do lateral roots initiate?
What is one difference in appearance of a cross section of a eudicot root vs. a monocot root.
Secondary growth also occurs in roots, the vascular cambium produces secondary xylem
towards the inside and secondary phloem towards the outside.
Root nodules are produced by legumes to house symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria that fix nitrogen
for the plant.
Two types of mycorrhizal associations are ectotrophic and endomycorrhizae.
Lecture 10
Sucrose and starch are main storage forms of fixed carbon. What two enzymes are used by
plants to break down sucrose? What are the two monosaccharide components of sucrose?
You should be generally familiar with the contents of phloem sap vs. xylem sap.
There are four main steps of respiration: mobilization, glycolysis, TCA cycle and electron
transport. If oxygen is not present how many steps are there? Three, mobilization, glycolysis,
and anaerobic fermentation.
What are the products of glycolysis? 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP and 2 NADH
What happens to the pyruvate next? It depends on whether oxygen is available.
If oxygen is not available then pyruvate is used in anaerobic fermentation. What is the purpose
of anaerobic fermentation? To oxidize NADH to produce NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue.
What are the products of anaerobic fermentation? CO2, ethanol and NAD+
OK, if oxygen is available then what is the fate of pyruvate? It is transported into the
mitochondria and enters the TCA cycle. What is the purpose of the TCA cycle? To decarboxylate
pyruvate (releasing CO2), and to produce reduced NADH and FADH2 that can be used by the
electron transport chain. The TCA cycle also produces a small amount of ATP.
Where does the TCA cycle take place? In the mitochondrial matrix.
How does the mitochondria use NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP? NADH and FADH2 are
produced by the TCA cycle in the matrix. These feed electrons to the electron transport chain,
that pumps protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space and forms a proton
gradient (form of energy). The proton gradient drive ATP production as protons flow back into
the matrix through the ATP synthetase.
NADH and FADH2 are the electron donors in the mitochondria, what is the terminal electron
acceptor? Oxygen accepts electrons and water is produced.
What is the function of the alternate oxidase (AO). The alternate oxidase reduces oxygen earlier
in the electron transport chain. Its function is to produce heat, by wasting some energy.