Download Global ecology

Chapter 52
An Introduction to Ecology
and the Biosphere
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Scope of Ecology
•
Ecology –the study of the interactions between organisms and the
environment
–
•
These interactions determine distribution and abundance of
organisms
Ecologists work at various levels, including:
–
Organismal Ecology
–
Population Ecology
–
Community Ecology
–
Ecosystem Ecology
–
Landscape Ecology
–
Global Ecology
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Fig. 52-2
Organismal
ecology
Population
ecology
Community
ecology
Ecosystem
ecology
Landscape
ecology
Global
ecology
• Organismal ecology studies how an
organism’s structure, physiology, and (for
animals) behavior meet environmental
challenges
How do hammerhead
sharks select a mate?
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• Population ecology focuses on factors
affecting how many individuals of a species live
in an area (A population is a group of individuals of the same
species living in an area)
What environmental factors
affect the reproductive rate of
deer mice?
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• Community ecology deals with the whole
array of interacting species in a community. (A
community is a group of populations of different species in an area)
What factors influence the
diversity of species that make
up a forest?
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• Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow
and chemical cycling among the biotic and
abiotic components. (An ecosystem is the community of
organisms in an area and the physical factors with which they interact)
What factors control
photosynthetic productivity in a
temperate grassland
ecosystem?
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• Landscape ecology deals with arrays of
ecosystems and how they are arranged in a
geographic region. (A landscape is a mosaic of connected
ecosystems)
To what extent do the
trees lining a river
serve as corridors of
dispersal for animals?
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• Global ecology examines the influence of
energy and materials on organisms across the
biosphere. (The biosphere is the global ecosystem, the sum of
all the planet’s ecosystems)
How does ocean circulation affect the
Global distribution of crustaceans?
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Concept 52.1: Ecology integrates all areas of
biological research and informs environmental
decision making
• Ecology is both a descriptive science (study
observations in nature) and an experimental
science (generate hypothesis, manipulate the
environment and observe outcomes).
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Fig. 52-3
“Dry”
“Wet”
Trough
Pipe
“Ambient”
Illustrated is an ecology experiment conducted over a 10 yr. period. In it,
Scientists hypothesized that certain species of trees are susceptible to
drought than others. They manipulated the environmental conditions by
creating troughs that collect water from one area to mimic a drought and
send it to another area to make it more wet. The ambient area is the normal
rainfall. They then observed the results.
Linking Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
• Events that occur in ecological time affect life
on the scale of evolutionary time
– Ex: insect populations decrease after
pesticide is used (ecological effect); insects
develop resistance as a result of the
pesticide forcing a change in the gene pool
(evolutionary effect)
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Ecology and Environmental Issues
• Ecology provides the scientific understanding
that underlies environmental issues
• Ecologists make a distinction between science
and advocacy
– Ecologists educate society about
environmental issues
– Society must decide how to use the
knowledge
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Fig. 52-4
• Rachel Carson is
credited with starting the
modern environmental
movement with the
publication of Silent
Spring in 1962
• She educated society
on the use of DDT and
her efforts led to a ban
on the pesticide.
Concept 52.2: Interactions between organisms and
the environment limit the distribution of species
• Ecologists study the distribution of organisms.
– They ask both where species live and why do they
live there
• Biogeography is a good starting point for understanding
what limits geographic distribution of species
• Two factors that determine distribution are: biotic, or living
factors, and abiotic, or nonliving factors
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Fig. 52-5
Kangaroos/km2
What abiotic factors do you think contribute to
The distribution pattern of the Red Kangaroo?
Biotic factors?
Abiotic factors: Red Kangaroos are found in
semi-arid and arid regions of the
interior where precipitation is low and
variable from year to year.
0–0.1
0.1–1
1–5
5–10
10–20
> 20
Limits of
distribution
Biotic factors: Could pathogens, parasites,
predators, competitors and food availability
also be factors?
Ecologists consider multiple factors when
attempting to explain the distribution of
species
Fig. 52-6
Use the following flow chart to see how ecologists attempt
to explain the distribution of a species.
Why is species X absent
from an area?
Yes
Does dispersal
limit its
distribution?
No
Area inaccessible
or insufficient time
Does behavior
limit its
distribution?
Yes
Habitat selection
Yes
No
Do biotic factors
(other species)
limit its
distribution?
No
Predation, parasitism, Chemical
competition, disease factors
Do abiotic factors
limit its
distribution?
Water
Oxygen
Salinity
pH
Soil nutrients, etc.
Temperature
Physical Light
factors Soil structure
Fire
Moisture, etc.
Dispersal and Distribution
• Dispersal is the actual movement of
individuals away from centers of high
population density or from their area of origin
• Distribution is where the actually end up. i.e.
where do we find them globally?
– Physical barriers can impede dispersal
– Organisms may not have had enough
time to spread out.
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Natural Range Expansions
• Natural range
expansions show the
influence of dispersal
on distribution
–
–
Current
1970
1966
Observing the
expansion of a natural
range directly is rare
because of the time
factor.
Ecologists often use
experimental methods
to understand the role
of dispersal in limiting
distribution
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1965
1960
1961
1943
1958
1951
1956
1970
1937
Species Transplants
• Species transplants include organisms that are
intentionally or accidentally relocated from their original
distribution
• They can be used by ecologists to determine if the
potential range of a species is larger than the actual
range. i.e. a species could live in a certain area where it
currently does not.
• Species transplants can disrupt the communities or
ecosystems to which they have been introduced. Thus the
use of this technique is often limited to observations of an
accidental transplant.
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Behavior and Habitat Selection
• Some organisms do not occupy all of their
potential range
• Species distribution may be limited by habitat
selection behavior
– Ex: Female corn borer beetles only lay
eggs on corn plants, even though the larva
could eat other plants. (They are attracted
by a scent)
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Biotic Factors
• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include:
– Interactions with other species
– Predation
– Competition
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Fig. 52-8
RESULTS
100
Seaweed cover (%)
80
Both limpets and urchins
removed
Sea urchin
Only urchins
removed
60
Limpet
40
Only limpets removed
Control (both urchins
and limpets present)
20
0
August
1982
February
1983
August
1983
February
1984
Abiotic Factors
•
Abiotic factors affecting distribution of organisms include:
–
Temperature: effects biological processes and therefore limits
distribution. Ex: Cells freeze and rupture below 0oC; proteins denature
above 45oC. Endotherms must expend energy in order to regulate
temperature.
–
Water: availability of water limits where many organisms can live. Ex:
Desert organisms have adaptations for water conservation.
–
Salinity: Aquatic organisms are usually restricted to either saltwater or
freshwater. Few terrestrial organisms are adapted to high salinity habitats
–
Sunlight: Light intensity and quality affect photosynthesis. Plants
compete with others for sunlight. Water absorbs light, thus most
photosynthetic aquatic organisms live near the surface. In deserts, high
light levels increase temperature and can stress plants and animals.
–
Rocks and Soil: Physical structure, pH and mineral composition of soil
limit plant distribution and thus the animals that feed upon them
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Climate
• Climate—the long-term prevailing weather conditions in an
area
• Abiotic components of climate: temperature, water,
sunlight, and wind
• Two scales of climate patterns:
– Macroclimate consists of patterns on the global,
regional, and local level
– Microclimate consists of very fine patterns, such as
those encountered by the community of organisms
underneath a fallen log
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Global Climate Patterns
• Global climate patterns are determined largely
by solar energy and the planet’s movement
in space
• Sunlight intensity plays a major part in
determining the Earth’s climate patterns
– Ex: More heat and light per unit of surface
area reach the tropics than the high
latitudes
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Fig. 52-10b
90ºN (North Pole)
60ºN
Low angle of incoming sunlight
30ºN
23.5ºN (Tropic of
Cancer)
Sun directly overhead at equinoxes
0º (equator)
23.5ºS (Tropic of
Capricorn)
30ºS
Low angle of incoming sunlight
60ºS
90ºS (South Pole)
Atmosphere
• Seasonal variations of light and temperature
increase steadily toward the poles
– Tropics get the most solar radiation and
o
the least variation due to the 23.5 tilt of the
Earth on its axis.
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Fig. 52-10c
60ºN
30ºN
0º (equator)
March equinox:
12 hrs daylight and 12 hrs of
darkness all regions of Earth
June solstice
North: long days/short nights
South: short days/ long nights
30ºS
December solstice
Constant tilt
of 23.5º
North: short days/long nights
South: Long days/short nights
September equinox
12 hrs daylight/ 12 hrs darkness all
regions of Earth
Fig. 52-10e
•Global air circulation and precipitation patterns play
major roles in determining climate patterns
•Warm wet air flows from the tropics toward the poles
60ºN
30ºN
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture
0º
(equator)
Ascending
moist air
releases
moisture
30ºS
60ºS
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture
30º 23.5º
Arid
zone
0º
Tropics
23.5º 30º
Arid
zone
Fig. 52-10f
Air flowing close to Earth’s surface creates predictable global wind patterns
Cooling trade winds blow from east to west in the tropics; prevailing westerlies
blow from west to east in the temperate zones
66.5ºN
(Arctic Circle)
60ºN
Westerlies
30ºN
Northeast trades
Doldrums
Southeast trades
0º
(equator)
30ºS
Westerlies
60ºS
66.5ºS
(Antarctic Circle)
Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on Climate
• Proximity to bodies of water and topographic
features such as mountain ranges contribute to
local variations in climate
– The Gulf Stream carries warm water from
the equator to the North Atlantic
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Fig. 52-11
Labrador
current
Gulf
stream
Equator
Cold water
The great ocean conveyor belt. Water is warmed at the equator, flows
to the North Atlantic, cools, sinks thousands of meters for as long as
1,000 years and eventually returns to the surface.
• Oceans and their currents and large lakes
moderate the climate of nearby terrestrial
environments
– During the day, air rises over warm land
and draws a cool breeze from the water
across the land
• As the land cools at night, air rises over the
warmer water and draws cooler air from land
back over the water, which is replaced by warm
air from offshore
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Fig. 52-12
2 Air cools at
3 Cooler
high elevation.
air sinks
over water.
1 Warm air
over land rises.
4 Cool air over water
moves inland, replacing
rising warm air over land.
Mountains
•
Mountains have a significant effect on the amount of sunlight reaching an
area, the local temperature, and rainfall
•
Rising air releases moisture on the windward side of a peak and creates a
“rain shadow” as it absorbs moisture on the leeward side
Leeward side
of mountain
Wind
direction
Mountain
range
Ocean
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Seasonality
• The angle of the sun leads to many seasonal
changes in local environments
• Lakes are sensitive to seasonal temperature
change and experience seasonal turnover
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Microclimate
• Microclimate is determined by fine-scale
differences in the environment that affect light and
wind patterns
– Ex: Forested areas create a shade
microclimate that experiences less extremes in
temperature than the open areas.
– Ex: A log creates a microclimate for
salamanders and insects, protecting them from
changes in temperature
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Long-Term Climate Change
• Global climate change will profoundly affect
the biosphere
• One way to predict future global climate
change is to study previous changes
• As glaciers began retreating 16,000 years ago,
tree distribution patterns changed
• As climate changes, species that have difficulty
dispersing may have smaller ranges or could
become extinct
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Fig. 52-14
Current
range
Predicted
range
Overlap
(a) 4.5ºC warming over
next century
(b) 6.5ºC warming over
next century
Concept 52.3: Aquatic biomes are diverse and
dynamic systems that cover most of Earth
• Biomes are the major ecological associations
that occupy broad geographic regions of land
or water
• Varying combinations of biotic and abiotic
factors determine the nature of biomes
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• Aquatic biomes account for the largest part of the
biosphere in terms of area
• They can contain fresh water (less than 1% salt)or salt
water (marine; 3% salt)
• Oceans cover about 75% of Earth’s surface and have an
enormous impact on the biosphere
– Evaporation from oceans provides most of the
world’s rainfall
– Effect climate and wind patterns
– Photosynthetic marine algae and bacteria supply
oxygen and consume carbon dioxide
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Fig. 52-15
30ºN
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30ºS
Lakes
Coral reefs
Rivers
Oceanic
pelagic and
benthic zones
Estuaries
Intertidal zones
Fig. 52-16
Many aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or layers
defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth
Intertidal zone
Oceanic zone
Neritic zone
Littoral
zone
Limnetic
zone
0
Photic zone
200 m
Continental
shelf
Benthic
zone
Photic
zone
Benthic
zone
Pelagic
zone
Pelagic
zone
Aphotic
zone
2,000–6,000 m
Abyssal zone
(a) Zonation in a lake
(b) Marine zonation
Aphotic
zone
• The upper photic zone has sufficient light for
photosynthesis while the lower aphotic zone receives little
light
• The organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all
aquatic zones is called the benthic zone
• The communities of organisms in the benthic zone are
collectively called the benthos
• Detritus, dead organic matter, falls from the productive
surface water and is an important source of food
• The most extensive part of the ocean is the abyssal zone
with a depth of 2,000 to 6,000 m
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• In oceans and most lakes, a temperature
boundary called the thermocline separates the
warm upper layer from the cold deeper water
• Many lakes undergo a semiannual mixing of
their waters called turnover
• Turnover mixes oxygenated water from the
surface with nutrient-rich water from the bottom.
It happens in spring and fall
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Fig. 52-17-5
Winter
Summer
Spring
2º
4º
4º
4º
4ºC
0º
4º
4º
Autumn
20º
18º
8º
6º
5º
4ºC
4º
4º
4º
4ºC
Thermocline
22º
4º
4º
4º
4º
4ºC
4º
Aquatic Biomes
• Major aquatic biomes can be characterized by
their physical environment, chemical
environment, geological features,
photosynthetic organisms, and heterotrophs
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Lakes
• Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and generally
oxygen-rich
• Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted of
oxygen if ice covered in winter
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Fig. 52-18a
An oligotrophic lake in Grand
Teton National Park, Wyoming
A eutrophic lake in the
Okavango Delta, Botswana
Wetlands
•
A wetland is a habitat that is
inundated by water at least some
of the time and that supports
plants adapted to watersaturated soil
•
Wetlands can develop in shallow
basins, along flooded river
banks, or on the coasts of large
lakes and seas
•
Wetlands are among the most
productive biomes on earth and
are home to diverse
invertebrates and birds
Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia
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Streams and Rivers
• The most prominent physical characteristic of streams and
rivers is current
– Headwater streams: cold, clear, swift, oxygen rich,
rocky bottom
– Downstream: warm, turbid, slow, less oxygen, more
organic material, silty bottom
• A diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted
rivers and streams
• Damming and flood control impair natural functioning of
stream and river ecosystems
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Fig. 52-18d
A headwater stream in the Great
Smoky Mountains
The Mississippi River far from
its headwaters
Estuaries
•
An estuary is a transition area
between river and sea
•
Salinity varies with the rise and
fall of the tides
•
Estuaries are nutrient rich and
highly productive
•
An abundant supply of food
attracts marine invertebrates
and fish
An estuary in a low coastal plain of Georgia
Video: Flapping Geese
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Intertidal Zones
•
An intertidal zone is periodically
submerged and exposed by the
tides
•
Intertidal organisms are
challenged by variations in
temperature and salinity and by
the mechanical forces of wave
action
•
Many animals of rocky intertidal
environments have structural
adaptations that enable them to
attach to the hard substrate
Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast
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Oceanic Pelagic Zone
•
The oceanic pelagic biome is
a vast realm of open blue
water, constantly mixed by
wind-driven oceanic currents
•
This biome covers
approximately 70% of Earth’s
surface
•
Phytoplankton and
zooplankton are the dominant
organisms in this biome; also
found are free-swimming
animals
Open ocean off the island of Hawaii
Video: Shark Eating a Seal
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Coral Reefs
•
Coral reefs are formed from the
calcium carbonate skeletons of
corals (phylum Cnidaria)
•
Corals require a solid substrate for
attachment
•
Unicellular algae live within the
tissues of the corals and form a
mutualistic relationship that
provides the corals with organic
molecules
A coral reef in the Red Sea
Video: Coral Reef
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Video: Clownfish and Anemone
Marine Benthic Zone
•
The marine benthic zone consists of the
seafloor below the surface waters of the
coastal, or neritic, zone and the offshore
pelagic zone
•
Organisms in the very deep benthic, or
abyssal, zone are adapted to continuous
cold and extremely high water pressure
•
Unique assemblages of organisms are
associated with deep-sea hydrothermal
vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic
ridges; here the autotrophs are
chemoautotrophic prokaryotes
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A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community
Concept 52.4: The structure and distribution of
terrestrial biomes are controlled by climate and
disturbance
• Climate is very important in determining why terrestrial
biomes are found in certain areas
– Latitudinal patterns of climate create latitudinal
patterns of biome distribution
• Biome patterns can then be modified by disturbance
such as a storm, fire, or human activity
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Fig. 52-19
Tropical forest
Savanna
Desert
30ºN
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30ºS
Chaparral
Temperate
grassland
Temperate
broadleaf forest
Northern
coniferous forest
Tundra
High mountains
Polar ice
Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
•
Climate has a great impact on the distribution of organisms
•
This can be illustrated with a climograph, a plot of the
temperature and precipitation in a region
•
Biomes are affected not just by average temperature and
precipitation, but also by the pattern of temperature and
precipitation through the year
–
Ex: Some areas may receive the same average amount of
rainfall but it can occur regularly in one and in wet and dry
seasons in another. Therefore, different organisms will be
found in each.
–
Ex: Type of bedrock and nutrients in soil may also be a
factor.
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Fig. 52-20
Annual mean temperature (ºC)
Desert
Temperate grassland
Tropical forest
30
Temperate
broadleaf
forest
15
Northern
coniferous
forest
0
Arctic and
alpine
tundra
–15
0
100
200
400
300
Annual mean precipitation (cm)
General Features of Terrestrial Biomes and the
Role of Disturbance
• Terrestrial biomes are often named for major
physical or climatic factors and for vegetation
• Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each
other, without sharp boundaries
• The area of intergradation, called an ecotone,
may be wide or narrow
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• Vertical layering is an important feature of terrestrial
biomes, and in a forest it might consist of an upper
canopy, low-tree layer, shrub understory, ground layer of
herbaceous plants, forest floor, and root layer
• Layering of vegetation in all biomes provides diverse
habitats for animals
• Biomes are dynamic and usually exhibit extensive
patchiness (several different communities represented in
any particular area). This is usually the result of a
disturbance occurring that opens up some part of the
biome for new organisms.
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Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes can be characterized by
distribution, precipitation, temperature,
plants, and animals
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Tropical Forest
•
Tropical rain forests:
constant rainfall tropical dry
forests: seasonal rainfall
•
Vertically layered and
competition for light is intense
•
Home to millions of animal
species, including an
estimated 5–30 million still
undescribed species of
insects, spiders, and other
arthropods
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A tropical rainforest in Borneo.
Desert
•
Low precipitation (less than
30 cm per year); deserts may
be hot or cold
•
Plants are adapted for heat
and desiccation tolerance,
water storage, and reduced
leaf surface area
•
Common desert animals
include snakes and lizards,
scorpions, ants, beetles,
migratory and resident birds,
and seed-eating rodents;
many are nocturnal
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A desert in the southwestern
United States
Savanna
•
Savanna precipitation and
temperature are seasonal
•
Grasses and forbs make
up most of the ground
cover. Plants are adapted
to fire and drought.
•
Common inhabitants
include insects and
mammals such as
wildebeests, zebras, lions,
and hyenas
A savanna in Kenya
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Chaparral
•
Chaparral climate is highly
seasonal, with cool and rainy
winters and hot dry summers
•
The chaparral is dominated by
shrubs, small trees, grasses,
and herbs; many plants are
adapted to fire and drought
•
Animals include amphibians,
birds and other reptiles,
insects, small mammals and
browsing mammals
An area of chaparral
in California
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Temperate Grassland
•
Temperate grasslands are
found on many continents
•
Winters are cold and dry, while
summers are wet and hot
•
The dominant plants, grasses
and forbs, are adapted to
droughts and fire
•
Native mammals include large
grazers and small burrowers
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Sheyenne National Grassland
in North Dakota
Northern Coniferous
Forest
•
The northern coniferous forest, or
taiga, extends across northern North
America and Eurasia and is the
largest terrestrial biome on Earth
•
Winters are cold and long while
summers may be hot
•
The conical shape of conifers
prevents too much snow from
accumulating and breaking their
branches
•
Animals include migratory and
resident birds, and large mammals
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Rocky Mountain National Park
in Colorado
Temperate
Broadleaf Forest
•
Winters are cool, while summers
are hot and humid; significant
precipitation falls year round as
rain and snow
•
A mature temperate broadleaf
forest has vertical layers
dominated by deciduous trees in
the Northern Hemisphere and
evergreen eucalyptus in
Australia
•
Mammals, birds, and insects
make use of all vertical layers in
the forest
•
In the Northern Hemisphere,
many mammals hibernate in the
winter
Great Smoky Mountains
National Park in North Carolina
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Tundra
•
Tundra covers expansive areas
of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists
on high mountaintops at all
latitudes
•
Winters are long and cold while
summers are relatively cool;
precipitation varies
•
Permafrost, a permanently
frozen layer of soil, prevents
water infiltration
•
Vegetation is herbaceous
(mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf
shrubs and trees, and lichen) and
supports birds, grazers, and their
predators
Denali National Park, Alaska,
in autumn
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You should now be able to:
1.
Distinguish among the following types of ecology: organismal, population,
community, ecosystem, and landscape
2.
Explain how dispersal may contribute to a species’ distribution
3.
Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: potential and actual range,
biotic and abiotic factors, macroclimate and microclimate patterns
4.
Explain how a body of water or mountain range might affect regional climatic
conditions
5.
Define the following terms: photic zone, aphotic zone, benthic zone, abyssal
zone, thermal stratification, thermocline, seasonal turnover, climograph,
disturbance
6.
List and describe the characteristics of the major aquatic biomes
7.
List and describe the characteristics of the major terrestrial biomes
8.
Compare the vertical layering of a forest and grassland
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