Download Document

APPENDICES
91
APPENDIX A
92
Table A1. Common Landmark Points
Name
Definition
Nasion
The most anterior point of the nasofrontal suture in the median plane.
The skin nasion (N) is located at the point for maximum convexity
between nose and forehead.
The sella point is defined as the midpoint of the hypophysial fossa. It
is a constructed radiological point in the median plane.
This point represents the midpoint of the line connecting the
posterior clinoid process and the anterior opening of the turcica.
A skin point where the nasal septum merges mesially with the
integument of the upper lip.
The deepest midline point in the curved body outline from the base
to the alveolar process of the maxilla.
It is constructed by dropping a perpendicular from point A to the
palatal plane.
Alveolar rim of the maxilla; the lowest. Most anterior point on the
alveolar portion of the premaxilla, between the upper central
incisors.
Tip of the crown of the most anterior maxillary central incisor.
Root apex of the most anterior maxillary central incisor.
Tip of the crown of the most anterior mandible central incisor.
Alveolar rim of the mandible; the highest. Most anterior point on the
alveolar process. in the median plane, between the mandible central
incisors.
Most anterior part of the mandible base. It is the most posterior point
in the outer contour of the mandible alveolar process, in the median
plane.
Most anterior point of the bony chin, in the median plane.
It is located between the most anterior and the most inferior point of
the bony chin.
A constructed point, the intersection of the lines tangent to the
posterior margin of the ascending ramus and the mandible base
It is the lowest point for the mandible.
Sella
Midpoint of sella
Subnasale
Point A,
subspinale
The anterior of
maxilla
Prosthion
Incisor spurious
Apical
Incisor inferiors
infradentale
Point B.
supramentale
pogonion
gnathion
Gonion
Mentnn
93
Table A1. Common Landmark Points
Cont.
Name
Definition
The anterior of the
mandible
Articulare
It is defined as the perpendicular dropped from Pogonion to the
mandibular plane.
The intersection of the posterior margin of the ascending ramus and
the outer margin of the Cranial base.
Most superior point on the head of the condoyle.
Lowermost point of the orbit in the radiograph.
Most anterior point of the skin of the chin in the median plane.
Condylion
orbital
Soft tissue
Pogonion
Tip of the nose
Anterior nasal
spine
Posterior nasal
spine
Landmark for
assessing the
length of the
Landmark
Anterior point for
the occlusal plane
Posterior point for
the occlusal plane
Basion
Pterygomaxillary
fissure
The most anterior point of the skin of the nose in the median plane.
The tip of the bony anterior nasal spine in the median plane.
A constructed radiological point marking the intersection of a
continuation of the anterior wall of the pterygopalatine fossa and the
floor of the nose. It marks the dorsal limit of the maxilla.
It is defined as a perpendicular dropped from point S to a line
extending the palatal plane.
A constructed point, the midpoint in the incisor overbite in occlusion.
The most distal point of contact between the most posterior molars in
occlusion.
Lowest point on the anterior margin of the foramen magnum in the
median plane.
The contour of the fissure projected onto the palatal plane.
94
APPENDIX B
95
Glossary
Anthropologists: The observation, measurement, and explanation of human variability in
time and space.
Anthropometric: Anthropometry is the measure of wo/man (anthro=man, pometry =
measure). The study of anthropometry is the study of human body
measurements to assist in understanding human physical variations and
aid in anthropological classification.
Cephalometric: measurement of human heads.
Cranial base: The endochondral bone that forms the anteroinferior aspect of the brain
case.
Craniometry: The branch of physical anthropology dealing with the study and
measurement of dry skulls after removal of its soft parts.
Cranium: The upper portion of the skull, which protects the brain.
Diaphonography: Examination of a body part by Tran illumination.
Mandible: The mandible is the bone of the lower jaw.
Maxilla: Either of a pair of bones of the human skull fusing in the midline and forming the
upper jaw.
Neuro-fuzzy: In the field of artificial intelligence, neuro-fuzzy refers to hybrids of artificial
neural networks and fuzzy logic.
96
Orthodontics: is a specialty of dentistry that is concerned with the study and treatment of
malocclusions (improper bites), which may be a result of tooth irregularity,
disproportionate jaw relationships or both. The word comes from the Greek
words ortho meaning straight and odons meaning tooth.
Pixel: the smallest addressable unit on a display screen or bitmapped image.
Radiographic: The technique of producing a photographic image of an opaque specimen
by the penetration of radiation such as gamma rays, x-rays, neutrons, or
charged particles.
Skull: The skull is a collection of bones which encase the brain and give form to the head
and face.
Tomography: The process for generating a tomogram, a two-dimensional image of a slice
or section through a three-dimensional object.
Ultrasound: High-frequency sound waves. Ultrasound waves can be bounced off of tissues
using special devices.
Unsharp filter: a method of sharpening an image by subtracting from it a blurred copy of
itself.
Voxel: is a unit of graphic information that defines a point in three-dimensional space.
97
REFERENCES
98
Abramson, S. B. and Fay, F. S. (1990). Application of multiresolution spatial filters to
long-axis tracking. Medical Imaging, IEEE. 9(2). 151-158.
Acharya, T. and Ray, K. (2005). Image Processing Principles and Applications. Canada: A
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
Barrete, M.J (1968). A computer-based system of dental and cranio facial measurement and
analysis. Australian dental Journal. 13. 207-212.
Baum, A.T. (1964). Age and sex difference in dentofacial changes following orthodontic
treatment. Am. J. Orthod. 47. 335- 340.
Benson P.E, and Richmond S. (1997). A critical appraisal of measurement of the soft tissue
out line using photograph and video. Eur. J. Orthod. 19. 397-409.
Bishara, S.E. Jorgensen, G.J. and Jakobsen, J.R. (1995). Changes in facial dimensions
assessed from lateral and frontal photographs. Part I, Methodology. Am. J. of Orthod. and
Dento. Orthopedics. 108. 389-393.
Bjork, A. (1947). The face in profile. Berlings ka Boktryckeriet. Lund.
Boerner, H. (1989). Feature Extraction by Grayscale Morphological Operations- a
comparison to DOG filters. Industrial Applications of Machine Intelligence and Vision,
International Workshop IEEE. 10(12). 112 – 117.
Broadbent, B.H. (1931). A new X-Ray technique and application in orthodontia. Angle
Orthod. 1(2). 45-66.
Canny, J. (1986). A computational approach to edge detection. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal.
Mach. Intell. 8. 679–698.
Cardillo, J. and M.A.Sid-Ahmed (1992). An Image Processing System for the Automatic
Extraction of Craniofacial Landmarks. Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging
Conference IEEE. 3. 2124-2128.
Cardillo, J. and Sid-Ahmed, M. A. (1994). An Image Processing System for Locating
Craniofacial Landmarks. Medical Imaging IEEE. 13(2). 275-289.
Chang, D. C. and Wu, W. R. (1998). Image contrast enhancement based on a histogram
Transformation of local standard deviation. IEEE Trans. on Med. Imag. 17(4). 518-531.
Chen, Y.T. Cheng, K.S. and Liul, J.K. (1998). Feature Sub image Extraction for
Cephalogram Landmarking. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, the 20th Annual
International Conference of the IEEE. 3(29). 1414-1417.
Chen, Y.T. Cheng, K.S. Liu, J.K. and Huang, J.J. (2005). An Intelligent View Box System
for Cephalometry. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurements. 54(1). 98 –
104.
99
Coben, S. (1955). The integration of facial variations. A serial cephalometric roentgen
graphic analysis of craniofacial form and growth. Am. J. Orthod. 41. 407-434.
Dahlberg, G. (1941). Statistical Methods for Medical and Biological Students. Journal of
the Royal Statistical Society.104 (1). 65-66.
Daskalogiannakis, J. (2000). Glossary of orthodontic terms. 1st edn. Quintessence
publishing co. Inc.
Davies, E. R. (1990). Machine Vision: Theory, Algorithms and Practicalities. London:
Academic Press. 42 - 44.
Davis, D.N. and Taylor, C.J. (1991). A blackboard architecture for automating
cephalometric analysis. Medical Informatics. 16(2). 421-432.
Deng, G. and Cahill, L. W. (1994). Isotropic quadratic filter designs using the WalshHadamard transform. Second Australian and New Zealand Conference. 29(2). 169-173.
Doppel, D.M. Damon, W.M. Joondeph, D.R. and Little, R.M. (1994). An investigation of
maxillary superimposition techniques using metallic implants. Am. J. Orthod dentofac.
Orthop. 105. 161-168.
Downs, W.B. (1948).Variations in relationships, their significance in treatment and
prognosis. Am. J. Orthod. 34. 812-840.
Downs, W.B. (1952). The role of cephalometric in orthodontic case analysis and diagnosis.
Am. J. Orthod. 38. 162-182.
Downs, W.B. (1956). Analysis of dentofacial profile. Angle Orthod. 26. 191-212.
Eales, E. A. Jones, M. L. Newton, C. Sugar, A. W. (1995). A study of the accuracy of
predicted soft tissue changes produced by a computer software package (COG 3.4) in a
series of patients treated by the Le Fort I astronomy. British Journal of Oral and
Maxillofacial Surgery. 33. 362-369.
El-Faituri, H. (1994). Cephalometric norms for Libyan population. Arab Dental J. 1. 35-46.
Enlow, D.H. (1982). Handbook of facial growth. 2nd edn. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
Feghi, E. Said-Ahmed, M.A. and Ahmadi, M. (2002). Location of Craniofacial Landmarks
on X-Ray Images by Employing Fuzzy Neural Network. 45th Midwest Symposium IEEE. 3.
III-348- III-351.
Feghi, E. l. Said-Ahmed, M.A. and Ahmadi, M. (2003). Automatic localization of
craniofacial landmarks for assisted cephalometry. Pattern Recognition Society. 37(3). 609621.
100
Forsyth, D. B. and Davis, D.N. (1996). Assessment of an automated cephalometric analysis
system. European Journal of Orthodontics. 18. 471-478.
Foster, T.D. (1990). Textbook of orthodontics. 3rd edn. London: Blackwell scientific
publication.
Frosio, I. and Borghese, N. A. (2006). Real Time Enhancement of Cephalometric
Radiographic. Biomedical Imaging: Nano to Macro. 3rd IEEE International Symposium. 6.
972-975.
Geelen, W. Wenzel, A. Gotfredsen, E. Kruger, M. Hansson, L. G. (1998). Reproducibility
of cephalometric landmarks in conventional film, hardcopy and monitor displayed images
obtained by the storage phosphor technique. Eur J Orthod. 20. 331–340.
Graber, T.M. (1988). Orthodontics principles and practice. W.B. Saunders Company.
Haralick, R. and Shapiro, L. (1992). Computer and Robot Vision. USA: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.
Hellman, M. (1927). The face and occlusion of the teeth in man. Int. J. Orthod and oral
surg. 13. 921-945.
Hing, L.R. (1981). Dental radiology. 5th Ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
Jacobson, A. and Caufield (1985). Introduction to radiographic cephalometry.
Philadelphia: Lea & Febige.
Jain, A. (1989). Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing. Prentice-Hall. Chap. 7.
Jähne, B. (2002). Digital image processing. 5th rev. and extended edn. London: Springer.
Judy, D.L. Farman, A.G. Silveira, A.M. Yancey, J.M. Regennitter, F.J. and Scarfe, W.C.
(1995). Longitudinal predictability of AF-BF value in angle class I patients. Angle Orthod.
65(5). 359-366.
Lin, T. Kao, T. (2000).Adaptive local contrast enhancement method for medical images
displayed on a video monitor. Medical Engineering & Physic. 22.79-87.
Mandel, A. Venetsanopoulos, A. and Tsotsos, J. (1986). Knowledge based Landmarking of
cephalograms. Comput. Biomed. Res. 19(3). 282–309.
Macri, V. Wenzel, A. (1993). Reliability of landmark recording on film and digital lateral
cephalograms. Eur J Orthod. 15. 137–148.
McNamara, Jr. J. A. (1984). A method of cephalometric evaluation. Am. J. Orthod. 86. 449
– 469.
101
Nanda, S.K. (1990). Growth patterns in subjects with long and short face. Am. J. Orthod
Dentofac. Orthop. 98. 247-258.
Neycenessac, F. (1993). Contrast Enhancement using the Laplacian-of-a-Gaussian Filter.
CVGIP (Graphical Models and Image Processing). 55(6). 447-463.
Park, I. Bowman, D. and Klapper, L. (1989). A cephalometric study of Korean adults. Am.
J. Orthod. 96(1). 54-59.
Parthasarathy, S. Nugent, S. T, Gregson, P. G. And Fay, D. F. (1989). Automatic
Landmarking of cephalograms. Comput. Biomed. Res. 22(3). 248–269.
Polesel, A. Ramponi, G. Mathews, V. J. (2000). Image enhancement via adaptive unsharp
masking. IEEE Trans. On Image Proc. 9, 505-510.
Proffit, W.R. (1986). Contemporary orthodontics. 3rd edn. St. Louis: Mosby.
Rakosi, T. (1982). Atlas and manual of cephalometric radiology. 2nd edn. London: Wolfe
Med.
Reddy, A. Manju, A. Muthukumaran, B. Kulkarni, C.Nandakumar, A. (2000).
Cephalometric Downs’ Analysis - A mathematical Framework. Signal Processing
Proceedings. 5th International Conference on IEEE. 1. 103-106.
Reitz, P.V. Aoki, H. Yoshioka, M. Uehara and Rubuta, Y. (1973). A cephalometric study
of tooth position as related to facial structure in profiles of human beings, A comparison of
Japanese (oriental) and American (Caucasian) adults. J. Prosthet. Dent. 29. 175-166.
Ren, J. Lid, D. Feng, D. Shao, J. Zhao, R. Liao, Y. and Lin, Z. (1998). A Knowledge-based
Automatic Cephalometric Analysis Method. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society,
20th Annual International Conference of the IEEE. 2. 723-727.
Renfroe, E.W. (1975). EdgeWise. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
Ricketts, R.M. (1960). A foundation for cephalometric communication. Am. J. Orthod. 46.
330-357.
Ricketts, R.M. (1980). Bioprogressive therapy. 2nd edn. Rocky Mountain orthodontic.
Ricketts, R.M. (1981). Perspectives in the clinical application of cephalometric. Angle
orthod. 51. 115-150.
Ricketts R.M (1982). Divine proportion in facial esthetics. Cline. Plast surg. 9(4). 401-422.
Sarver, D.M. (1998). Esthetic orthodontics and orthognathic surgery. 1st edn. St. Louis:
Mosby.
Sassouni, V. (1959). Clinical Cephalometry. University of Pennsylvania, 1959.
102
Schalkoff, R. J. (1989). Digital Image Processing and Computer Vision. New York: John
Wiley & Sons. Chap. 4.
Sen, A. Lan, L. Hoffmann, K.R. (1997). Improved coronary vessel tracking using nonlinear filter enhanced x-ray angiograms. Engineering in Medicine and Biology society,
IEEE. 2(30). 573 – 576.
Stedman, T. L. (1990). Stedman's Medical dictionary. 25th edn. Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins.
Steiner, C.C. (1953). Cephalometrics for you and me. Am. J. Orthod. 39. 729–755.
Swierenga, D. Oesterle, L.J. and Messersmith, M.L. (1994). Cephalometric values for adult
Mexican-Americans. Am. J. Orthod. Dentofac. Orthop. 106.146-155.
Tahoces, P. G. Rocca, J. Souto, M. Gonzalez, C. Gòmez, L. and Vidal, J. J. (1991).
Enhancement of chest and breast radiographs by automatic spatial filtering. IEEE Trans. on
Med. Image. 10. 330-335.
Tong, W. Nugent, S. T. Gregson, P.H. Jensen, G.M. Fay, D.F. (1990). Landmarking of
cephalograms using a microcomputer system. Computers and Biomedical Research. 23.
358-379.
Trapkov, B. Major, P. Prasad, N. and Nebbe, B. (1997). Cephalometric landmark
identification and reproducibility, Ameta analysis. Am. J. Orthod. 112. 165-170.
Xia, J. Qi, F. Yuan, W. Wang, D. Qiu, W. Sun, Y. Huang, Y. Shen, G. Wu, H. (1995).
Computer Aided Simulation System for Orthognathic Surgery. 8th IEEE Symposium on
Computer-Based Medical Systems. 237-244.
Xinding, S. Zhenming, X. Changshcng, X. and Yan, W. (1996). Adaptive Kalman Filtering
Approach of Color Noise in Cephalometeric Image. Signal Processing, 3rd International
Conference on IEEE. 1. 622-625.
Xu, C. Xu, Y. and Ma, S. (1998). Cephalometric Image Measurement and Prediction
System. IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference. 1. 22-25.
Yang, J. Ling, X. Lu, Y. Wei, M. and Ding, G. (2001). Cephalometric image analysis and
measurement for orthognathic surgery. Journal of Medical and Biological Engineering and
Computing. 39(3). 279-284.
Yue, W. Yin, D. Li, C. Wang, G. and Xu, T. (2005). Locating Large-Scale Craniofacial
Feature Points on X-ray Images for Automated Cephalometric analysis. Image Processing,
IEEE International Conference. 2. 1246-1249.
Yue, W. Yin, D. Li, C. Wang, G. and Xu, T. (2006). Automated 2-D Cephalometric
Analysis on X-ray Images by a Model-Based Approach. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE.
53(8). 1615-1623.
103