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Anatomy & Physiology I Unit Six The Four Body Membranes Cutaneous Mucous Serous Synovial Cutaneous Membrane It is external and the largest of the four membranes It is commonly called the skin It is the thickest, comprised of two layers Cutaneous Membrane It is the driest of the four, but does produce fluids: > sebum – sebaceous glands > sweat – sudoriferous glands > milk – mammary glands Cutaneous Membrane Cutaneous Mucous Membranes They are internal, covering the openings to the external environment: + digestive – mouth & anus + respiratory – mouth & nasal + urinary – urethra + reproductive – urethra (males) & vagina (females) Mucous Membranes They are thin, but comprised of three layers: + epithelial + loose connective (aerolar) + muscle Mucous Membranes These membranes carry out three functions: + absorption + secretion + protection Mucous Membranes They secrete mucus which can vary in its viscosity The mucus moistens the openings and passageways, increasing absorption and trapping pathogens & foreign particles Serous Membranes They are internal membranes that line body cavities and cover internal organs These membranes are thin, comprised of two layers: + epithelial + loose connective (aerolar) Serous Membranes They produce a thin, watery fluid called serous fluid which is used as an internal lubricant, reducing friction between internal structures Synovial Membranes They are internal membranes that line specific skeletal joints called synovial joints These membranes are comprised of one layer of thick fibrous connective tissue Synovial Membranes They produce a viscous, slippery fluid called synovial fluid which is used to lubricate the highly moveable synovial joints Functions of the Integumetary Acts as a barrierSystem to: * infection * water * UV radiation * chemicals Resists trauma Functions of the Integumetary System Assists in the production of vitamin D Sensory perception Thermoregulation The Skin The skin (integument) is made up of two layers: epidermis – superficial & stratified epithelium dermis – deep connective tissue The skin is supported by another layer of connective tissue called the hypodermis The Skin The Skin The epidermis is made up of five layers which are composed mainly of two types of cells: keratinocytes melanocytes The Skin Keratinocytes: epithelial cells that migrate from bottom to top of epidermis they die as they migrate they fill with keratin, flattening the cell and waterproofing them The Skin Melanocytes: epithelial cells that produce the pigment melanin (brown to black) all people have approximately the same number color of skin and hair is determined by these cells The Skin The Skin The dermis is the thickest stratum of the skin, made up of a single layer of connective tissue It is composed mainly of collagen, but also contains elastic fibers and other fibrous connective tissues The Skin The dermis contains: a rich supply of blood vessels nerves and nerve endings glands - oil and sweat muscle tissue the “roots” of hair and nails The Skin The Skin The deeper zone of the dermis can be stretched, resulting in tearing of the collagen fibers and producing scars called striae Superficial scars are produced after trauma when fibrous connective tissues replace epithelial tissues The Skin The hypodermis is a layer of connective tissues that lies just inferior to the skin It is sometimes referred to as the subcutaneous layer It functions to attach the skin to the underlying tissues and act to pad the body The Skin The hypodermis is comprised mainly of areolar and adipose tissues and is highly vascularized The fat found in the adipose tissues is unequally distributed in the hypodermis and accumulates differently in males and females The Skin The fat of the hypodermis functions as an energy reservoir and has a slight insulative value Derivatives of the Epidermis Hair - found only in mammals Sebaceous glands - oil glands Sudoriferous glands - sweat glands Nails - protecting the digit tips Derivatives of the Epidermis Hair is composed mainly of keratin Has two basic parts: = follicle = shaft Derivatives of the Epidermis Associated structures: = arrector pili = sebaceous glands Derivatives of the Epidermis Sudoriferous glands Sebaceous gland Derivatives of the Epidermis Sebaceous glands: = produce sebum (oil) = associated with each hair follicle = prevent desiccation Derivatives of the Epidermis Sudoriferous glands: = produce sweat = distributed over entire body = two types Derivatives of the Epidermis Eccrine sweat glands: = most abundant = secrete a watery fluid = functions in temperature regulation Derivatives of the Epidermis Apocrine sweat glands: = few in select regions = secrete a viscous fluid = begin functioning at puberty Derivatives of the Epidermis Other sudoriferous glands: = ceruminous glands - produce wax = mammary glands - produce milk Derivatives of the Epidermis Nails: = composed mainly of keratin = protect & lend stability to the digit ends Functions of the Skeletal System Support - provides a framework Protection - encloses vital organs Movement - provides points of attachment for muscles - functions as levers Production of blood cells Reservoir for minerals Long Bone Anatomy Features of Compact Bone Features of Spongy Bone Calcium Homeostasis Osteoblasts - bone building cells - reduce blood Ca2+ levels Osteoclasts - bone reducing cells - increase blood Ca2+ levels Calcium Homeostasis Calcitonin - hormone secreted by thyroid - stimulates osteoblasts to remove Ca2+ from the blood and deposit it in bone PTH - parathyroid hormone (hormone secreted by the parathyroids) - stimulates osteoclasts to remove Ca2+ from the bone and release it into the blood Calcium Homeostasis Calcitriol - a form of vitamin D - stimulates increased Ca2+ absorption from the intestine Growth hormone - secreted by the anterior pituitary - stimulates epiphyseal plates Calcium Homeostasis Estrogen - secreted by the ovaries - increases bone deposition (mass) & feminizes the skeleton Testosterone - secreted by the testes - increases bone deposition (mass) & masculinization of the skeleton Calcium Homeostasis Calcium Homeostasis Intramembranous Ossification Endochondral Ossification Bone Growth & Remodeling Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone Rickets - caused by insufficient calcium intake or vitamin D deficiency - childhood disease - bones are pliable & will bow out - bones continue to grow Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone Osteomalacia - caused by insufficient calcium intake or vitamin D deficiency - adult form of rickets - bones “soften” & become brittle Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone Both rickets and osteomalacia can be eliminated by drinking milk fortified with vitamin D or increased exposure to sunlight Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone Osteoporosis: - a group of diseases in which bone destruction outpaces bone deposition - affects entire skeleton, especially spongy bone - prevalent in post menopausal women Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone Osteoporosis causes: - decreased estrogen levels - petite body form - insufficient exercise - smoking - poor diet Therapies slow down losses, but cannot reverse them Joint Types & Characteristics Fibrous joints: - no joint cavity - typically immovable - bones held together with fibrous connective tissue Fibrous joint examples: - sutures of the skull - tibiofibular joint Joint Types & Characteristics Joint Types & Characteristics Cartilaginous joints: - no joint cavity - immovable to very limited movement - bones joined together with cartilage Cartilaginous joint examples: - epiphyseal plates - intervertebral discs Joint Types & Characteristics Joint Types & Characteristics Synovial joints: - joint cavity present - cavity encompasses the articular cartilages of the epiphyses - exhibit the greatest range of movement Joint Types & Characteristics Synovial joint examples: - shoulder - knee - hip - wrist - elbow Joint Types & Characteristics Synovial Joint Types Plane: - flat surfaces that glide over each other - most limited synovial movement Plane joint examples: - carpals - tarsals - vertebral articular processes Synovial Joint Types Synovial Joint Types Condyloid: - convex surface of one articulates with concave surface of the other - slight movement in all directions Condyloid joint examples: - wrist (radiocarpal) - knuckles (metacarpalophalangeal) Synovial Joint Types Synovial Joint Types Saddle: - both articular surfaces are concave (saddle shaped) - similar to condyloid, but greater range of movement Saddle joint example: - thumb joint Synovial Joint Types Synovial Joint Types Hinge: - one articular surface is slightly concave while the other is deep - similar to saddle, but only uniaxial range of movement Hinge joint examples: - elbow - phalanges Synovial Joint Types Synovial Joint Types Pivot: - rounded end of one articular surface turns in a ring of bone or ligament of the other - large range of movement Pivot joint examples: - atlas & axis (C1 & C2) - radioulnar joint Synovial Joint Types Synovial Joint Types Ball and socket: - rounded end of one articular surface turns in a socket of bone or ligament of the other - greatest range of movement Ball and socket joint examples: - shoulder - hip Synovial Joint Types Joint Connective Tissues Joints are made up of many other tissues and structures than just bone These other tissues and structures function to bind, cushion and stabilize joints Joint Connective Tissues Intervertebral discs are fibrocartilaginous discs that connect vertebrae, forming a cartilaginous joint Ligaments are fibrous connective tissues that bind bone to bone Tendons are fibrous connective tissues that connect muscle to bone Joint Connective Tissues Articular cartilages are found on the epiphyses of long bone and function to cushion and reduced friction in the joint Articular cartilages of the knee form C shaped extensions (menisci) that function to enhance the seating of the femur on the tibia Joint Connective Tissues Bursae are flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane that produce synovial fluid Bursae are found in synovial joints where bone, muscle, skin, tendons & ligaments rub against each other Joint Connective Tissues Bursae act as bags of lubricant, reducing the friction between the structures that rub against each other Joint Connective Tissues The Knee Joint The Knee Joint Joint Disorders Sprain - stretched or torn ligaments - will usually heal on their own, but very slowly - complete tears must be repaired surgically Joint Disorders Strain - excessively stretched or partially torn muscle - due to overuse or abuse - inflammation many times immobilizes the joint Joint Disorders Bursitis - inflammation of the bursae due to trauma, friction or overuse Tendonitis - inflammation of tendon sheaths due to overuse Joint Disorders Slipped disc - the bulging of an intervertebral disc due to overuse and abuse - the bulging disc presses against nerves causing a variety of symptoms Joint Disorders Arthritis is a term used to describe over 100 types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases of the joints Joint Disorders Osteoarthritis - “wear and tear” arthritis - chronic condition in which articular cartilages gradually wear away - onset is slow, progressive and irreversible Joint Disorders Rheumatoid arthritis - a chronic inflammatory, autoimmune disorder - onset is quick and irreversible - synovial joint inflammation causes accumulations of fluid, developing swelling and damage to joint tissues - is crippling and debilitating Joint Disorders Gout – a condition caused by the accumulation of uric acid in synovial joints - usually due a poor diet (one rich in fats) - can be corrected, but if left untreated can cause irreversible damage to joint tissues
