Download NOTE slides 15-21

12-1
DNA
D_________N_________ A_________
Fill-in the blanks above.
How many DNA molecules are
shown?
How would you describe the
structure of one molecule?
Most generally (one word), what is
the function of DNA?
How do we know this?…...
1
DNA
Griffith and Transformation
Experiment 1
Who was Fredrick Griffith (1928)?
What was he studying, generally?
What was the specific focus of his study?
Describe Experiment 1, including the
variables, control (not shown), and
significance of the results:
Describe Experiment 2 and explain
the significance of the results:
Experiment 2
Harmless bacteria
(rough colonies)
Lives
2
DNA
Griffith and Transformation
Experiment 3
Define “heat-killed” bacteria.
Describe Experiment 3, and explain
the significance of the results:
Heat-killed disease-causing
bacteria (smooth colonies)
Lives
3
DNA
Griffith and Transformation
Describe Experiment 4 and the
significance of the results.
Describe and explain the significance of the
additional evidence (end of experiment)?
What did Griffith conclude?
What question follows?
How???
Experiment 4
Heat-killed diseasecausing bacteria
(smooth colonies)
Harmless bacteria
(rough colonies)
What do we call this process today?
What question remains?
Live disease-causing
What???
bacteria
(smooth colonies)
Dies of pneumonia
4
DNA
Avery and DNA
What question did Oswald Avery et al.
experiment to answer in 1940?
How did Avery's experiment compare to
Griffith's? Describe the general difference.
What are hydrolytic enzymes?
Describe Avery's first experiment,
including the hydrolytic enzymes used.
Describe the results and explain
the significance?
Describe Avery's second experiment,
including the hydrolytic enzymes used.
Describe the results and explain
the significance?
What did Avery conclude?
Explain the lack of consensus in the scientific community?
Protein “Camp”
5
DNA
The Hershey-Chase Experiment
TEM of T4
Bacteriophage
What question did Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase experiment to answer in
1952? What is a bacteriophage? Explain why bacteriophages were perfect
for finding the answer to this question. Draw and label the most important
component missing from the schematic above.
6
DNA
The Hershey-Chase Experiment
Refer to the diagram to explain, in detail, the
process of a bacteriophage infecting a bacterium.
Did Hershey and Chase understand this process?
What did they not know and experiment to find out?
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DNA
Bacteriophage with
suffur-35 in protein coat
The Hershey-Chase Experiment
Phage infects
bacterium
No radioactivity
inside bacterium
How did Hershey and Chase prepare the 35S-labeled bacteriophages for
their first experiment?
Describe, in detail, the experimental procedure shown in the diagram above.
Describe and explain the significance of the results.
8
DNA
Bacteriophage with
phosphorus-32 in DNA
The Hershey-Chase Experiment
Phage infects
bacterium
(click)
Radioactivity
inside bacterium
How did Hershey and Chase prepare the 32P-labeled bacteriophages for
their second experiment?
Describe the experimental procedure shown in the diagram above.
Describe and explain the significance of the results.
What did Hershey and Chase conclude?
Explain the resulting consensus of the scientific community.
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DNA
The Components and Structure of DNA
DNA is composed of what three types of compounds joined together?
What class of organic compound is “sugar”? What sugar is specific to DNA?
What element does the “base” contain other than CHO? “Base” is AKA?
Is the “phosphate group” alone organic? “Phosphate group ” is AKA?
Together, these compounds form a nucleic acid monomer known as a ______?
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DNA
The Components and Structure of DNA
How are nucleotides variable?
Number list the DNA nucleotides?
Describe the difference
between purine and
pyrimidine bases.
Describe the effect this has on
the overall nucleotides?
Describe how nucleotides are
bound together.
Identify the product of bound nucleotides.
Bound deoxyribose and phosphate
form what part of the polynucleotide?
Explain how polynucleotides
can be variable.
How do we know all of this?...
11
DNA
The Components and Structure of DNA
What kind of scientist was Erwin Chargaff?
What did Chargaff do with DNA in the late 1940s?
What were Chargaff's results concerning variability? Significance?
What were Chargaff's results concerning consistency (Chargaff's Rules)?
Significance?
12
DNA
The Components and Structure of DNA
“Photo 51”
What kind of scientist was Rosalind Franklin?
Identify the image on the right.
Describe how Rosalind obtained this image in the early 1950s.
What two important characteristics of DNA does this image reveal?
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DNA
The Components and Structure of DNA
Identify these two scientists.
What kind of scientist were they?
What did they build in 1953?
What information did they use
and where did they get it?
Describe this model, in general.
What two major functions of DNA
did this model support?
What did they win?
Who didn't win that should have?
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DNA
The Components and Structure of DNA
What is the most common analogy
to describe the double helix?
What is each “strand” by itself?.
Fill-in the missing labels.
Review what “A, T, G & C” are and
how the two classes differ.
Describe what Watson & Crick
discovered about hydrogen bonding
that explains Chargaff's rules.
What is this exclusive bonding
between bases known as today?
Define complementary and use it to
describe the relationship between
the polynucleotides.
Explain how this structure relates to
the three functions of DNA.
DNA Double Helix
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12-2
DNA and Chromosomes
What class of cell is this (review)?
Where is DNA found in this cell type?
Describe the prokaryotic chromosome (3 characteristics).
E. coli
Chromosome
Nucleotide Sequence
(shown untwisted)
What does this diagram represent?
What class of cell is this from (review)?
How does the amount of DNA compare?
In what two forms can DNA be found?
Describe the difference and when they exist.
How is this diagram inaccurate?
Contrast the eukaryotic chromosome.
How does the number of chromosomes
compare between species?
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DNA and Chromosomes
Chromosome
Chromatin
Nucleosome
DNA
double
helix
Coils
Supercoils
Histones
What are histones?
What is a nucleosome?
What is chromatin?
Use the diagram to describe how DNA becomes organized into chromosomes.
Differentiate between the functions of chromatin and chromosomes.
Identify and label sister chromatids in the diagram.
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DNA and Chromosomes
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
During what process must DNA replication occur? Why?
What is cell division also known as in unicellular organisms?
Explain how DNA structure allows for precise replication using the terms
template and base pairing (review).
Use the diagram (right) to describe replication of the single, circular prokaryotic
chromosome using the terms origin of replication, replication forks, replication
bubble, template, old strands, complementary, new strands, and termination.
What additional compounds (not shown) are required for this process?
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DNA and Chromosomes
Eukaryotic DNA Replication
Review the difference between prokaryotic
and eukaryotic genomes.
Use the diagram above to describe replication of eukaryotic chromosomes
using the terms origins of replication, replication forks, replication bubbles,
template, old strands, complementary, new strands, and sister chromatids.
What additional compounds (not shown) are required for this process?
Explain why the replication bubbles in the micrograph are different sizes.
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DNA and Chromosomes
DNA Replication
New Strand
Original strand
Nucleotides
Growth
Growth
Replication Fork
Replication Fork
DNA Polymerase
Relate this diagram to those on the two previous slides. What does this
diagram show in greater detail?
Use the diagram above to describe DNA replication using the terms origin of
replication, replication forks, replication bubble, template, old strands, new
strands, DNA polymerase, nucleotides, base pairing rule, complementary, and
sister chromatids.
What enzyme not shown begins the process and what does it do, specifically?
What is the additional “responsibility” of DNA polymerase?
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12-3
The Structure of RNA
The Central Dogma
12-3 RNA and Protein Synthesis
Define genes. Refer to the diagram to describe the process of gene expression.
Explain why this is considered the central dogma of biology.
Describe the involvement or role of RNA in this process.
Like DNA, RNA belongs in which class of organic compound?
How is the structure of RNA similar to DNA?
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
The Structure of RNA
List three differences between DNA and RNA?
List the three main types of RNA along with their acronym?
What is each group of three nucleotides called In mRNA?
Describe the function of messenger RNA.
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
Types of RNA
Ribosome
Amino acid
Ribosomal RNA
What are ribosomes?
What are ribosomes made of?
Describe the function of rRNA.
Transfer RNA
Describe the shape of tRNA.
What is bound to one end of tRNA?
What is at the other end of tRNA?
What other RNA does tRNA
interact with?
Describe the function of tRNA.
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
RNA Transcription
RNA
RNA polymerase
DNA
What process produces all three types of RNA? Where does this happen?
What does this tell you about genes relative to all three RNAs?
This is the beginning of gene expression. How does DNA polymerase know
where to bind to DNA?
Use the diagram to describe RNA transcription using the terms RNA
polymerase, promoter, template, nucleotides, base pairing rule, and
complementary.
What determines the nucleotide sequence in RNA?
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
RNA Processing
Where does RNA processing take place? Exon Intron
What is pre-mRNA?
Define intron. Define exon.
Use the diagram to describe RNA processing?
What special compounds allow for this process?
What is the function of the cap and tail sequences?
The removal of introns and attachment of
exons is also known as “splicing”. Why
does this process exist?
DNA
Pre-mRNA
mRNA
Cap
Tail
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
The Genetic Code
mRNA
Define genetic code?
Define codon?
What does each codon code for?
What are amino acids? (review)
Study the genetic code. Is the
relationship between codons and
amino acids one-to-one? Explain!
Use the genetic code to decipher
the codon AUG. What two things
does it code for?
How many stop codons are there?
Do they code for amino acids?
What do they signify relative to a polypeptide?
Describe how the sequence of mRNA nucleotides carries the information to
make a specific polypeptide or protein.
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
Translation
Nucleus
mRNA
Identify and label all that is not in the diagram above.
Refer to the diagram to review:
- where mRNA is made, and how
- where it goes (generally & specifically)
- how it is able to go there
- the process it participates in
Define translation in relation to gene expression.
Describe translation, generally.
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
Translation
Identify and label all that you can in the diagram above.
Identify all three RNAs and describe the specific role of each in this process.
Refer to the diagram to describe how translation begins, in specific detail.
Infer from the diagram what happens next and describe it, in specific detail.
Identify what moves and add arrows to the diagram that show direction.
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
Lysine
Polypeptide
tRNA
Ribosome
tRNA
mRNA
Translation
Ribosome
direction
Relate the left diagram with that on the previous slide to describe what
happens next, in specific detail.
Refer to the right diagram to describe how this cycle stops, in specific detail.
Identify the product. Review what each colored sphere represents.
Explain how the specific product is variable.
Review how the amino acid sequence of polypeptides is specified during gene
expression…
mRNA
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
DNA, RNA, Genes and Proteins
The Central Dogma
What overall process does this diagram represent?
Identify and label the two “subprocesses”.
Referring to the diagram, describe gene
expression especially focusing on SEQUENCE
Single strand of DNA
and what ensures it.
Review and explain the structure, functions, and
Codon Codon Codon
importance of proteins in all living systems.
mRNA
Alanine Arginine Leucine
Amino acids within
a polypeptide
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12-4
Mutations
12-4 Mutations
1.
3.
2.
Define genetic mutation. What causes mutation?
Identify and label the general types of mutations represented above.
Explain the significance of number 3.
When does each type of mutation occur?
Compare and contrast these two general types of mutation.
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Mutations
Gene Mutations
Define point mutation.
List 3 general types of point mutations.
Study the diagram:
- describe the substitution
- explain the effect on mRNA sequence
- explain the effect on amino acid
sequence.
- explain the effect on protein structure
& function.
Evaluate the potential severity of this
mutation type.
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Mutations
Gene of Mutations
Study the diagram:
- describe the insertion
- explain the effect on mRNA sequence
- explain the effect on amino acid
sequence.
- explain the effect on protein structure
& function.
Define/Explain frame shift mutations.
Evaluate the potential severity of this
mutation type.
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Mutations
Gene of Mutations
Study the diagram:
- describe the analogy
- describe the deletion
- explain the effect on mRNA sequence
- predict the effect on amino acid sequence.
- predict the effect on protein structure & function.
Differentiate between “missense” and “nonsense” mutations.
Evaluate the potential severity of this mutation type.
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Mutations
Chromosomal Mutations Of Structure
Review/Define chromosomal mutation, and identify the two general types.
Identify the general type of chromosomal
mutations represented by this diagram.
Refer to the diagram to define & describe
chromosomal deletion.
Refer to the diagram to define & describe
chromosomal duplication.
Refer to the diagram to define & describe
chromosomal inversion.
Refer to the diagram to define & describe
chromosomal translocation.
Evaluate and explain the potential severity
of each mutation type.
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Mutations
Chromosomal Mutations Of Number
Identify the general type of
chromosomal mutations represented
by this slide.
Define polyploidy and explain
strawberries as an example.
Refer to the figure at left and define
karyotype.
How is a karyotype obtained?
What disorders can a karyotype
diagnose?
Define neutral mutation.
Explain how mutation can be
beneficial. What does it increase,
allow for, and contribute to?
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12-5
Gene Regulation: A Prokaryotic Example
RNA Polymerase
Define operon. Identify the operon in this diagram and the organism it is in.
What do the genes in this operon code for and how does it benefit E. coli?
Study the diagram and identify the two regulatory regions.
Describe and explain the function of the promoter region.
Describe and explain the function of the operator region.
Describe and explain the function of the repressor.
Determine whether this operon is “on” or “off”. Explain!
Explain the consequence of this operon state for E. coli?
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Gene Regulation: A Prokaryotic Example
Lactose
Identify and label all components of this diagram.
Compare this diagram with the previous and describe the difference, in detail.
Identify the process synthesizing RNA. How many different RNA will be created?
Identify the process mRNA will participate in. What will result from this process?
Explain the consequence of this operon state for E. coli?
Are all prokaryotic genes regulated in this way?
During what other stage may gene expression be regulated?
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Gene Regulation
Upstream
enhancer
A Eukaryotic Generalization
TATA
box
Promoter
sequences
Introns
Exons
Direction of transcription
How would you expect eukaryotic gene expression to compare with
prokaryotes? Explain! Identify and note the differences between diagrams.
Describe the function of the promoter sequences.
Describe the function of the TATA box. Why TATA?
Describe the function of the upstream enhancer region. Explain “upstream”.
Define transcription factor. Where can transcription factors bind?
What affect can transcription factors have on gene regulation?
Identify every stage of eukaryotic gene expression available for regulation?
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Gene Regulation
Development and Differentiation
Review the concepts:
- cell, tissue, organ & organism development
- cell differentiation
Fruit fly chromosome Mouse chromosomes
- cell specialization
Define HOX genes.
Explain the importance of HOX
gene regulation.
Study the diagram...
What are represented by the colored
bars in the chromosomes?
Fruit fly embryo
Explain the meaning of the color coding
Mouse embryo
between genes and body regions.
Compare & contrast the chromosomes
and genes between species.
What is the general difference?
Identify the two major animal groups
represented by these species.
What is the general difference?
Adult fruit fly
Adult mouse
What does the comparison between genes and organism development
suggest about the relationship and evolution of these animals?
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