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BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 10, Cell Growth and Division
Questions to think about
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What are some of the difficulties a cell faces as it increases in size?
How do asexual and sexual reproduction compare?
What is the job of chromosomes in cell division?
What are the main events of the cell cycle?
What events occur during each phase of mitosis?
How do daughter cells split apart after mitosis?
How is the cell cycle regulated?
How do cancer cells differ from other cells?
How do cells become specialized for different functions?
What are stem cells?
What are some possible benefits and issues associated with stem cell research?
Summary of concepts
 Cell grow only so big before they divide. The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the cell
places on its DNA. Also, a larger cell has more difficulty in moving enough nutrients in and
wastes out.
 Organisms produced by asexual reproduction are genetically the same as the single cell that
produced them.
 Organisms produced by sexual reproduction grow from a single cell that contains genetic
information from two parents.
 Chromosomes are made up of DNA that carries a cell’s genetic information.
 The eukaryotic cell cycle includes interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
 Mitosis is divided into four phases in which replicated chromosomes and a cell’s nucleus divide
equally. In prophase, the chromosomes condense and the nucleus breaks down. In metaphase,
the chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. In anaphase, sister chromatids separate. In
telophase, a nucleus reforms around each set of separated chromosomes.
 Cytokinesis completes the process of cell division. It splits one cell into two.
 Internal and external regulatory proteins help control a cell’s growth and division.
 Apoptosis removes old or unneeded cells from an organism.
 Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that tell most cells to stop growing.
 During the development of an organism, cells differentiate into many types of cells.
 Stem cells have the ability to differentiate into other types of cells.
 Stem cell research may off many medical benefits, but it also raises ethical concerns.
Vocabulary
Cell division
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Chromosome
Chromatin
Cell cycle
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Chromatid
Centromere
Growth factor
Apoptosis
Cancer
Embryo
Differentiation
Totipotent
Pluropotent
Multipotent
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BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 11, Genetics
Questions to think about
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Where does an organism get its unique characteristics?
How are different forms of a gene passed to offspring?
How can we use probability to predict traits?
How do alleles segregate when more than one gene is involved?
What did Mendel contribute to what we know about genetics?
What are some exceptions to Mendel’s principles?
Does that environment have a role in how genes determine traits?
How many sets of genes are found in most adult organisms?
What happens during each phase of meiosis?
How is meiosis different from mitosis?
How can two alleles from different genes be inherited together?
Summary of concepts
 An individual’s unique characteristics are determined by factors that are passed from parent to
offspring.
 When gametes are made, the alleles for each trait separate from each other. That way each
gamete carries only one allele from each gene.
 Punnett squares use probability to predict combinations of alleles in a genetic cross.
 Genes for different traits segregate independently.
 Mendel’s principles of heredity form the basis of modern genetics.
 Traits can be controlled by incomplete dominant alleles, codominant alleles, more than two
possible alleles, and several genes.
 Environmental conditions can affect gene expression and influence genetically determined traits.
 The diploid cells of most adult organisms contain two complete sets of inherited chromosomes
and so two complete sets of genes.
 Meiosis is a process of cell division that results in gametes that have half the number of
chromosomes that other body cells have. In prophase I, copied chromosomes pair with their
matching homologous chromosomes. At metaphase I, paired chromosomes line up across the
center of the cell. In anaphase I, chromosomes pairs move toward opposite ends of the cell. In
telophase I, a nuclear membrane forms around each cluster of chromosomes. Cytokinesis then
forms two new cells. As the cells enter prophase II, their chromosomes become visible. The final
four phases of meiosis II result in four haploid daughter cells.
 Meiosis results in four genetically different haploid cells. Mitosis results in two genetically
identical diploid cells.
 Alleles of different genes tend to be inherited together when those genes are on the same
chromosome.
Vocabulary
Genetics
Fertilization
Trait
Gene
Allele
Principle of dominance
Segregation
Gamete
Incomplete dominance
Independent assortment
Heterozygous
Phenotype
Genotype
Homozygous
Codominance
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Probability
Multiple alleles
Polygenic trait
Homologous
Diploid
Haploid
Meiosis
Crossing-over
Zygote
BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 12, DNA
Questions to think about
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What clues did bacterial transformation give about the gene?
What role did bacterial viruses play in identifying genetic material?
What is the role of DNA in heredity?
What are the chemical parts of DNA?
What clues helped scientists solve the structure of DNA?
What does the double-helix model tell us about DNA?
What role does DNA polymerase play in copying DNA?
How does DNA replication differ in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?
Summary of concepts
 By studying bacterial transformation. Avery and other scientists discovered that DNA stores and
passes genetic information from one generation of bacteria to the next.
 Hershey and Chase’s experiment with bacteriophages confirmed Avery’s results, convincing
many scientists that DNA was the genetic material found in genes.
 The DNA that makes up genes must be capable of storing, copying, and transmitting the genetic
information in a cell.
 DNA is a nucleic acid made up of nucleotides joined into long strands or chains by covalent
bonds.
 The clues in Franklin’s X-ray pattern allowed Watson and Crick to build a model that explained
the specific structure and properties of DNA.
 The double-helix model explains the reasons behind Chargaff’s rule and how the two strands of
DNA are held together.
 DNA polymerase is an enzyme that joins individual nucleotides to produce a new strand of DNA.
 In most prokaryotic cells, replication starts from a single point, and it continues in two directions
until the entire chromosome is copied.
 In eukaryotic cells, replication may begin in hundreds of places on the DNA molecule.
Replication then moves in both directions until each chromosome is completely copied.
Vocabulary
Transformation
Bacteriophage
Base pairing
Replication
DNA polymerase
Telomere
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BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 13, RNA and Protein Synthesis
Questions to think about
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How does RNA differ from DNA?
How does the cell make RNA?
What is the genetic code, and how is it read?
What role does the ribosome play in assembling proteins?
What is the “central dogma” of molecular biology?
What are mutations?
How do mutations affect genes?
How are prokaryotic genes regulated?
How are genes regulated in eukaryotic cells?
What control the development of cells and tissues in multicellular organisms?
Summary of concepts
 The main differences between RNA and DNA are that (1) the sugar in RNA is ribose instead of
deoxyribose; (2) RNA is generally single-stranded, not double-stranded; and (3) RNA contains
uracil in place of thymine.
 In transcription, segments of DNA serve as templates to produce complementary RNA molecules.
 The genetic code is read three “letters” at a time, so that each “word” is three bases long and
corresponds to a single amino acid.
 Ribosomes use the sequence of codons in mRNA to assemble amino acids into polypeptide
chains.
 The central dogma of molecular biology is that information is transferred from DNA to RNA to
protein.
 Mutations are heritable changes in genetic information.
 The effects of mutation on genes may vary widely. Some have little or no effect; some produce
beneficial variations. Some negatively disrupt gene function.
 Mutations often produce proteins with new or altered functions that can be useful to organisms
in different or changing environments.
 DNA-binding proteins in prokaryotes regulate genes by controlling transcription.
 By binding DNA sequences in the regulatory regions of eukaryotic genes, transcription factors
control the expression of those genes.
 Master control genes are like switches that trigger particular patterns of development and
differentiation in cells and tissues.
Vocabulary
Messenger RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA
Transcription
RNA polymerase
Promoter
Intron
Exon
Polypeptide
Genetic code
Codon
Translation
Anticodon
Gene expression
Mutation
Point mutation
Frameshift mutation
Mutagen
Polyploidy
Operon
Operator
RNA interference
Differentiation
Homeotic gene
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Homeobox gene
Hox gene
BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 14, Human Heredity
Questions to think about
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What is a karyotype?
What patterns of inheritance do human traits follow?
How can pedigrees be used to analyze human inheritance?
How do small changes in DNA molecules affect human traits?
What are the effects of errors in meiosis?
What techniques are used to study human DNA?
What were the goals of the Human Genome Project, and what have we learned so far?
Summary of concepts
 A karyotype shows the complete diploid set of chromosomes grouped together in pairs,
arranged in order of decreasing size.
 Human genes follow the same Mendelian patterns of inheritance as the genes of other
organisms. Many human traits follow a pattern of simple dominance. The alleles for other
human genes display codominant inherence. Because the X and Y chromosomes determine sex,
the genes located on them show a pattern of inheritance called sex-linkage.
 The information gained from pedigree analysis makes it possible to determine the nature of
genes and alleles associated with inherited human traits.
 Changes in a gene’s DNA sequence can change proteins by altering their amino acid sequences,
which many directly affect one’s phenotype.
 If nondisjunction occurs during meiosis, gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes
may result, leading to a disorder of chromosome numbers.
 By using tools that cut, separate, and then replicate DNA base by base, scientists can now read
the base sequences in DNA from any cell.
 The Human Genome Project was a 13-year, international effort with the main goals of
sequencing all 3 billion base pairs of human DNA and identifying all human genes.
 The Human Genome Project pinpointed genes and associated particular sequences in those
genes with numerous disease and disorders. It also identified about three million locations
where single-base differences occur in humans.
Vocabulary
Genome
Karyotype
Sex chromosome
Autosome
Sex-linked gene
Pedigree
Nondisjunction
Restriction enzyme
Gel-electrophoresis
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Bioinformatics
Genomics
BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 16, Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Questions to think about
Vocabulary
Evolution
Artificial selection
What was Charles Darwin’s contribution to science?
Fossil
Analogous structure
What three patterns of biodiversity of Darwin note?
Biogeography Vestigial structure
What did Hutton and Lyell conclude about Earth’s history?
Adaptation
Natural Selection
How did Lamarck propose that species evolve?
Fitness
Homologous structure
What was Malthus’s view of population growth?
How is inherited variation used in artificial selection?
Under what conditions does natural selection occur?
What does Darwin’s mechanism for evolution suggest about living and extinct species?
How does the geographic distribution of species today relate to their evolutionary history?
How do fossils help to document the descent of modern species from ancient ancestors?
What do homologous structures and similarities in embryonic development suggest about the
process of evolutionary change?
12. How can molecular biology be used to trace the process of evolution?
13. What does recent research on the Galapagos finches show about natural selection?
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Summary of concepts
 Darwin developed a scientific theory of biological evolution that explains how modern
organisms evolved over long periods of time through descent from common ancestors.
 Darwin noticed that (1) different, yet ecologically similar, animal species inhabited separated but
ecologically similar, habitats around the globe; (2) different, yet related animal species often
occupied different habitats within a local area; and (3) some fossils of extinct animals were
similar to living species.
 Hutton and Lyell concluded that Earth is extremely old and that the processes that changed
Earth in the past are the same processes that operate in the present.
 Lamarck suggested that organisms could change during their lifetimes by selectively using or not
using various parts of their bodies. He also suggested that individuals could pass these acquired
traits on to their offspring, enabling species to change over time.
 Malthus reasoned that if the human population grew unchecked, there wouldn’t be enough living
space and food for everyone.
 In artificial selection, nature provides the variations, and humans select those they find useful.
 Natural selection occurs in any situation in which more individuals are born than can survive,
there is natural heritable variation, and there is variable fitness among individuals.
 According to the principle of common descent, all species—living and extinct—are descended
from ancient common ancestors.
 Patterns in distribution of living and fossil species tell us how modern organisms evolved from
their ancestors.
 Many recently discovered fossils from series that trace the evolution of modern species from
extinct ancestors.
 Evolutionary theory explains the existence of homologous structures adapted to different
purposes as the result of descent with modification from a common ancestor.
 The universal genetic code and homologous molecules provide evidence of common descent.
 The Grants have documented that natural selection takes place in wild Galapagos finch
populations frequently, and sometimes rapidly, and that variation within species increases the
likelihood of the species adapting to and surviving environmental change.
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BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 17, Evolution of Populations
Questions to think about
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How is evolution defined in genetic terms?
What are the sources of genetic variation?
What determines the number of phenotypes in a given trait?
What types of isolation lead to the formation of new species?
What is the current hypothesis about Galapagos finch speciation?
What are molecular clocks?
Where do new genes come from?
How may Hox genes be involved in evolutionary change?
Summary of concepts
 Evolution is change in the frequency of alleles in a population over time.
 Three sources of genetic variation are mutations, genetic recombination during sexual
reproduction, and later gene transfer.
 The number of phenotypes produced for a trait depends on how many genes control the trait.
 Natural selection on single-gene traits can lead to changes in allele frequencies. This can lead to
changes in phenotype frequencies.
 Natural selection on polygenic traits can affect the relative fitness of phenotypes. This selective
pressure can cause one of the three types of selection: directional selection, stabilizing selection,
and disruptive selection.
 Genetic drift may occur in small populations. By chance, individuals that carry one allele may
leave more offspring than other individuals leave. Over time, a series of chance events can cause
an allele to become more or less common in a population.
 The Hardy-Weinberg principle predicts that five conditions can cause evolution to take place: (1)
nonrandom mating, (2) small population size, (3) movement into or out of the population, (4)
mutations, and (5) natural selection.
 When populations become reproductively isolated, they can evolve into separate species.
Reproductive isolation can develop in a variety of ways. These include behavioral isolation,
geographical isolation, and temporal isolation.
 Speciation in Galapagos finches most likely occurred by: founding of a new population,
geographical isolation, changes in the population’s gene pool, behavioral isolation, and ecological
competition.
 A molecular clock uses mutation rates in DNA to estimate the time that two species have been
evolving separately.
 One way that new genes evolve is through the duplication, and then modification, of existing
genes.
 Small changes in Hox gene activity during development can produce large changes in adult
animals.
Vocabulary
Gene pool
Single-gene trait
Allele frequency
Polygenic trait
Directional selection
Stabilizing selection
Disruptive selection
Genetic drift
Bottleneck effect
Founder effect
Genetic equilibrium
Molecular clock
Sexual selection
Species
Speciation
Geographical isolation
Behavioral isolation
Temporal isolation
Reproductive isolation
Hardy-Weinberg principle
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BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 3, The Biosphere
Questions to think about
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What is ecology?
What are biotic and abiotic factors?
What methods are used in ecological studies?
What are primary producers?
How do consumers obtain energy and nutrients?
How does energy flow through ecosystems?
What do the three types of ecological pyramids illustrate?
How does matter move through the biosphere?
How does water cycle through the biosphere?
What is the importance of the main nutrient cycles?
How does nutrient availability relate to the primary productivity of an ecosystem?
Summary of concepts
 Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their
physical environment.
 A biotic factor is any living part of the environment.
 An abiotic factor is any nonliving part of the environment.
 Modern ecologists use three methods in their work: observation, experimentation, and
modeling.
 Primary producers are the first producers of energy-rich compounds that are later used by other
organisms.
 Organisms that rely on the other organisms for energy and nutrients are called consumers.
 Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way stream, from primary producers to various
consumers.
 Pyramids of energy show the relative amount of energy available at each trophic level of an
ecosystem. A pyramid of biomass illustrates the relative amount of living organic matter
available at each trophic level. A pyramid of numbers shows the relative number of individual
organisms at each trophic level.
 Matter is recycled within and between ecosystems.
 Water continuously moves between the oceans, the atmosphere, and land. Sometimes the water
is outside living organisms and sometimes it is inside them.
 Organisms need nutrients to build tissues and carry out life functions. The main nutrient cycles
move carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus through the biosphere.
 The availability of nutrients may limit primary productivity, even when sunlight and water are
plentiful.
Vocabulary
Biosphere
Biotic factor
Autotroph
Consumer
Food web
Nitrogen fixation
Community
Population
Heterotroph
Food chain
Biomass
Denitrification
Ecology
Abiotic factor
Primary producer
Ecological pyramid
Trophic level
Biogeochemical cycle
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BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 4, Ecosystems and Communities
Vocabulary
Questions to think about
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What is climate?
What factors determine global climate?
What is a niche?
How does competition shape communities?
How do predation and herbivory shape communities?
What are the three primary ways that organisms
depend on each other?
How do communities change over time?
Do ecosystems return to “normal” following a
disturbance?
What abiotic and biotic factors characterize biomes?
What areas are not easily classified into a major biome?
What factors affect life in aquatic ecosystems?
What are the major categories of freshwater ecosystems?
Why are estuaries so important?
How do ecologists usually classify marine ecosystems?
Climate
Microclimate
Symbiosis
Mutualism
Predation
Commensalism
Ecological succession
Pioneer species
Canopy
Understory
Humus
Plankton
Estuary
Greenhouse effect
Habitat
Niche
Resource
Parasitism
Herbivory
Primary succession
Secondary succession
Taiga
Permafrost
Benthos
Wetland
Summary of concepts
 A region’s climate is defined by year-after-year patterns and averages of temperature and
precipitation.
 Global climate is shaped by many factors, including the amount of solar energy that is trapped in
the biosphere. The transport of heat by winds and ocean currents also shapes global climate.
 A niche is the range of physical and biological conditions in which a species lives. It includes the
way that a species obtains what it needs to survive and reproduce.
 Competition causes species to divide resources. It helps determine the number and kinds of
species in a community. It also helps to shape the niche each species occupies.
 Predators and herbivores can affect the size of other populations in a community. Predators can
affect where prey population can survive. Herbivores can help determine where populations of
certain plants can survive and grow.
 The three main classes of symbiotic relationships in nature are mutualism, parasitism, and
commensalism.
 In healthy ecosystems, secondary succession often reproduces the original climax community
after a natural disturbance. But ecosystems may or may not recover from widespread
disturbances caused by humans.
 Biomes are described in terms of abiotic factors like climate and soil type. They are also
described by biotic factors like plant and animal life.
 Mountain ranges and polar ice caps are not usually classified into biomes. They are not easily
defined in terms of a typical community of plants and animals.
 Aquatic organisms are affected primary by the water’s depth, temperature, flow, and amount of
dissolved nutrients.
 Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into three main categories: rivers and streams, lakes and
ponds, and freshwater wetlands.
 Estuaries serve as spawning and nursery grounds for many ecologically and commercially
important fish and shellfish species.
 Ecologists divide the ocean into zones based on depth and distance from shore.
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BIOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER FINALS STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 5, Populations
Questions to think about
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How do ecologists study populations?
What factors affect population growth?
What happens during exponential growth?
What is logistic growth?
What factors determine carrying capacity?
What limiting factors depend on population density?
What limiting factors do not usually depend on population density?
How has the size of the human population changed over time?
Why do population growth rates differ among countries?
What is the importance of the main nutrient cycles?
Summary of concepts
 Ecologists study a population’s range, density, growth rate, and age structure.
 Population growth is affected by birthrate and death rate. It can also be affected by immigration
and emigration.
 In exponential growth, the population grows more and more quickly.
 Logistic growth happens when the growth of a population slows and then stops.
 Limiting factors determine the carrying capacity of a population.
 Competition depends on population density. Predators, herbivores, parasites, and diseases
affect crowded populations more than small, scattered populations. Stress can also affect a
dense population.
 Unusual weather and natural disasters can act as density-independent limiting factors.
 For a long time, the population grew slowly. In the 1800s, the population began to grow
exponentially.
 Birthrates and death rates are different in different countries. The age structures are different.
Countries with high birthrates and low death rates are growing quickly. The United States,
Japan, and much of Europe have completed the demographic transition, and their growth rates
have slowed.
Vocabulary
Age structure
Immigration
Emigration
Exponential growth
Logistical growth
Carrying capacity
Limiting factor
Density-dependent limiting factor
Density-independent limiting factor
Demography
Demographic transition
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