Download Ethogram 2

Contents
Page
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………... 3
Contents of the pack, objectives
2. Why choose the ringtailed lemur? …………………………… 4
3. Background information on ringtailed lemurs ………………. 5
4. Methods of recording the behaviour of ringtailed lemurs …. 10
Preparation for the zoo visit, continuous and instantaneous
methods of recording observations
5. Descriptions of the behaviours that might be displayed …… 11
Feeding, resting, moving, grooming
6. Analysis of results ……………………………………………… 14
Continuous and instantaneous recording
7. Discussion of results ………………………………………….. 14
8. Research synopsis …………………………………………….. 15
Time budgets, feeding, grooming, moving, resting
9. Acknowledgements ……………………………………………. 16
10. Bibliography …………………………………………………... 17
11. Useful addresses …………………………………………….. 17
12. Student worksheets ………………………………………….. 18
Studying Animal Behaviour in Zoos
Recording and Scoring Selected Behaviours of Ringtailed Lemurs
1. Introduction
What better way to stimulate and enthuse students about the study of animal behaviour
than a day visit to a zoo! There are 61 centres (1991) in the Federation of Zoological
Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland, so schools and colleges will not be far from one.
Increasingly, zoos welcome organised groups of students as their research, particularly
when set up in co-operation with zoo staff, can add to the knowledge and understanding
of the species in the zoo collection.
This ASAB project is designed to provide teachers with sufficient information to
confidently guide students through the scientific process involved in collecting reliable
data, analysing the outcomes and evaluating it in terms of previous research.
Materials available in this pack
•
•
•
•
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background information on ringtailed lemurs
two suggested methods for gathering data by observation, with instructions for
students
recording sheets for each of the methods
suggestions for graphically representing and analysing the data
selected topics from research papers to extend these studies.
Materials available on loan (from the ASAB Education Officer – address on page 15)
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a ten minute video, illustrating the types of behaviour displayed by ringtailed lemurs
a selection of relevant articles from biological and psychological journals.
Objectives
In carrying out this study of animal behaviour, students should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
gather some information about the life history of the animals being studied
recognise different categories of behavioural activity
learn how ethograms (descriptions of the behaviours a species exhibits) are
constructed
carry out a focal sample to observe the behaviour of individuals
record their observations by continuous and instantaneous methods
present their results in a graphical form and statistically analyse them, where
appropriate
discuss their results and relate them to previous research.
The materials presented here could be incorporated into the 2001 Advanced Level
Biology courses (in particular the Biological Basis of Behaviour module in the NEAB
modular course). The new specifications for A level Biology produced by AQA and
OCR retain an optional module incorporating behaviour studies in the second year of the
course, so this project would be eminently suitable for coursework. In the EDEXCEL
specification, the opportunity to undertake animal behaviour studies could be utilised to
complete the individual practical study. Indeed, some papers in Animal Behaviour and
other (carefully selected) journals could be understood by able sixth form students and
used as references when writing up their work. The proposed study is also suitable for
supporting topics in the Scottish Advanced Higher Biology Animal Behaviour module.
A level Psychology students could also use these materials to support one of their two
pieces of coursework, for example, to illustrate aspects of sociality, or the signalling
systems used in non-human animals. The new specifications for AS and A2 level
Psychology include topics such as allogrooming, stress in captive animals, social learning
and animal communication, all topics which could be incorporated into coursework by
using the methods described in this project.
2. Why choose the ringtailed lemur?
The animals that are the focus for this study are ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta). The
reasons for this choice are:
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they are hardy primates and found in most zoos in sufficiently large group sizes for
study
•
they are instantly recognisable to students as a species (although differences between
individuals in a group are quite difficult to spot)
•
they are diurnal creatures, so they will be evident when students visit the zoo
•
whatever the ringtailed lemurs are doing at the time of observation, data can be
generated, i.e. the animals are always behaving
•
there is quite a body of documented research into their behaviour, both in the wild
and in captivity (some of this research is available with this pack of materials)
•
they are highly active animals
•
they live in social groups, so interactions between individuals can be studied
•
as a species, they are appealing to humans
•
there is the possibility, in some zoos, for humans to interact with the animals in open
exhibits
•
there is the possibility, in some zoos, to study interactions between species (in
Blackpool Zoo, three species of lemur occupy a shared area).
3 Background information on ringtailed lemurs ( Lemur catta)
This information could be used by a teacher to become an instant ‘expert’ on the animals
being studied, or as a resource for students to use in preparation for their study.
Natural habitat
Lemurs are confined to the island of Madagascar, which has been separated from the
southeast coast of Africa for about 120 million years. These ‘lower’ primates or
prosimians were able to evolve on the island continent in isolation from higher
primates, such as monkeys and apes, because they were not subject to the same levels
of competition and predation suffered by mainland primates elsewhere.
Until about two thousand years ago, when humans colonised the island, there were over
40 species of Malagasy Lemuriformes, ranging from some as small as shrews to others
the size of goats. The destruction of
forested areas, hunting and the
introduction of domestic species
resulted in the extinction of at least
14 species of lemurs.
The 32
species that survive today are still
threatened by the continuing loss
of their habitats, chiefly forest.
Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Primate
Lemuridae
Lemur
catta
The primates are divided into two
main groups, the prosimians , which
includes
lemurs,
and
the
anthropoids,
which
include
monkeys, apes and man.
Lemurs are easily distinguished
from true monkeys by their fox-like
muzzles and their very large, but
inexpressive eyes. Adult ringtailed lemurs have a mass of 3 - 3.5 kg and they are 1.0 1.2 m in length, including their long, ringed tail. Their forelimbs are longer than their
hind limbs and their fur is greyish, soft and woolly.
Day-time creatures with night-time origins
Most lemurs are adapted for night vision by having a reflective layer (tapetum lucidum)
behind the retina, ensuring that the maximum amount of light is detected. This feature,
along with their tendency to call loudly at night, resulted in the ir name – lemur – meaning
‘ghost’. Lemurs have become less nocturnal and more active during the day, presumably
due to the lack of predators (other than man) on their island habitat. The ringtailed lemur is
diurnal.
Communication
Unlike higher primates, prosimians have a highly developed sense of smell , which plays
an important part in communication as well as being used to find food. Lemurs have
genital scent glands , which they use to mark branches of their territories. Males also have
a functional secretory gland on the flexor surface of each forelimb, which they use to smear
their tails to wave at potential rivals or to indicate sexual arousal. Tail ‘flicking’ , in which
the tail is moved from a vertical position forward over the head of the individual, is an
effective method of distributing scent. Male tail displays are thought to act as stimulants
for the neuro-endocrine mechanisms controlling ovulation. Ringtailed lemurs emit a wide
range of vocalisations including purring (like cats) and yapping (like terriers).
Feeding
The ringtailed lemur is the only lemur, which
spends most of its time on the ground. This
enables the ringtailed lemur to exploit a wider
range of dietary items, including leaves, fruit and
flowers and to hunt for insects in dead wood and
termite mounds. In contrast, other lemurs are
herbivorous.
Unlike higher primates, lemurs rarely use their
paws to manipulate food items, though leaf-bearing
branches may be pulled closer to their mouths to
feed from directly.
Moving
Most lemurs have a long, bushy tail, which is used as a counter balance
when leaping from branch to branch in their arboreal environment. The
ringtailed lemur is a semi-terrestrial quadruped, spending most of its
time on the ground, unlike other species of lemur, which spend most of
their time in the trees. The palms of the paws and soles of the feet are
leathery, providing effective grip on slippery rocks. It moves through
the trees by climbing up large oblique branches and leaping down to
others, rather than using narrow terminal branches at the tops of trees and
leaping to adjacent trees as seen in other species of lemur.
Grooming
Unlike higher primates, prosimians use their teeth, including their special, comb-like
lower incisors , for grooming as shown on the skull below1 .
Allogrooming , where one animal grooms another, ensures that parts of the body not
accessible during self-grooming are reached to keep the animal’s coat free from parasites
and dirt. However, it also serves a social function; it is the commonest form of interaction
between members of a group. In many species, other females in the group regularly groom
mothers of newborn infants, perhaps enabling access to the infant. Grooming often occurs
in bouts; one animal grooms another, the n stops and the roles are reversed – the groomee
becoming the groomer – and so on.
Affiliation (social bonding) and appeasement (submission to a dominant individual in
order to reduce aggression) are both reinforced by social grooming in many species of
primates.
Resting
To conserve heat at night, ringtailed lemurs curl up so that none of their underside is
exposed. Huddling , in which the tail is wrapped around the body, reduces the surface area
available for heat loss.
1
Photograph kindly provided by Dr. M. Hansell
Resting activity during the day may be
related to daylength and temperature;
‘sunning’ (in which the animal exposes
its underside to the sun) may be an
thermo -regulatory
important
mechanism. During the day ringtailed
lemurs spend about five times as long
resting as engaged in any other activity.
Presumably, this is linked to their diet;
other lemurs spend less of their time
resting.
Social organisation
The ringtailed lemur lives in social groups of about twelve individuals, but this can range
from five to thirty.
Unusually
for
primates, females are
dominant over males,
although the group
does not have a single
leader.
Hierarchy
among the males is
maintained separately
by frequent threats and
displays
between
individuals
and
occasional
fighting.
Subordinate males may
be pushe d to the
periphery of the group
where, in an arid environment with sparse food, exclusion of excess males could be an
adaptive advantage for the whole group. At the top of the hierarchy, successful males are
able to retain their aggressiveness and thus pr ovide better protection for a large group of
individuals moving on the ground over a fairly large territory (6 – 23 ha).
Females and their female descendants form the social core of the group, only leaving in
order to start a new group. Females define and defend the territory; males move
between different groups, thus preventing inbreeding and effecting gene flow throughout
the population.
Reproduction
All species of lemurs are seasonal breeders (August – November) in the wild (in zoos,
breeding groups can be expected to produce offspring in April or May). Female ringtailed
lemurs reach sexual maturity at 21 - 24 months, give birth once a year and the gestation
period is 130 - 135 days. Multiple births are rare. The mating season lasts less than two
weeks and within this time a single female is receptive to males on only one day.
Oestrous is marked by swelling and pinkening of the external genitalia and by repeated
presentation of the anogenital region to the male. Synchronisation of menstrual cycles
ensures that all adult females in a number of adjacent groups become receptive at the same
time. This synchrony is probably achieved by olfactory communication as ringtailed
lemurs use their scent glands lavishly at this time.
Care of the young
The young are born at a relatively early stage of development. For the first 3 days the
infant remains attached to its mother’s breast, then it may ride on its mother’s back. The
infant is cared for by the whole group, being suckled by any lactating female for about 5
months. This altruistic behaviour is a common feature of the complex social behaviour of
higher primates, enabling other females to learn the skills of parenthood. Group support
increases the survival chances of the young and ensures that their alleles are successfully
passed on to the next generation.
4. Methods of recording the behaviour of ringtailed lemurs
Preparation for the zoo visit
Students should be encouraged to take their cameras with them as it is relatively easy to
photograph at least some of these behaviours whilst the lemurs are in the outdoor
enclosure. A video camera would be a particularly valuable piece of equipment to take on
the visit, provided students have had previous training or experience in its use.
One diffic ulty students encounter when they first attempt to study animal behaviour is the
difficulty in identifying individuals within a group. In some zoos the animals may be
tagged with coloured or numbered discs to aid identification.
Another difficulty students face when conducting observations of animal behaviour is
defining the behaviour in such a way that it can be unambiguously recognised by all
observers. Many hours of preliminary observations are required to categorise and define
descriptions of behaviours and then construct an ethogram describing these behaviours so
that other observers can use them accurately. It would take students the whole of their visit
to reach this stage so these materials will enable students to concentrate on the gathering of
reliable observational data, using ethograms already prepared.
In this study, following preliminary observations, it was decided to focus on four easily
distinguishable aspects of a ringtailed lemur’s behaviour: feeding, moving, grooming and
resting .
Definitions of these behaviours are provided (see section 5) and could be discussed with
students prior to the zoo visit. A ten-minute video recording of ringtailed lemurs engaged
in the four activities is available on loan from the ASAB Education officer (the address is
provided on page 15). Close examination of the animals’ behaviour reveals the complexity
of each activity and illustrates how ethograms can be constructed.
Observations and recording of animal behaviour
On a day visit to a zoo, bearing in mind that other exhibits may wish to be visited, the time
available for observations of animal behaviour is likely to be limited. This material is
designed to give students the opportunity to experience two different types of recording
method in the space of about an hour.
1 Continuous recording
The continuous method will enable students to focus first of all on the four easily
distinguishable activities listed above. They should focus their attention on the behaviour
of a single individual for a period of about thirty minutes and simply record the amount of
time spent on each activity on the recording sheet (1a) provided. If the individual being
observed should go out of sight, the observation period ceases 9though it is hoped that
students will be for tunate enough to observe one individual for 20 – 30 minutes). During
this period of observation they should notice that each activity can be further defined and
this could lead to a discussion of the formation of ethograms.
2 Instantaneous recording
Students can then experience instantaneous recording of observations using prepared
ethograms. The detailed recording sheets (2F, 2G, 2M and 2R) for this part of the study
have been designed as simple tick boxes for ease of completion by the students. In this case,
students record in as much detail as they can (by completing the appropriate tick boxes on a
horizontal line on one of the recording sheets) exactly what their individual lemur is doing at
each thirty-second interval for up to about thirty minutes. This will provide a wealth of
valuable data and illustrate that apparently simple methods of recording can yield highly
useful data.
One difficulty, which students working in groups may encounter, is timing the ‘instant’ of
recording accurately. This could be overcome by recording ‘bleeps’ at 30 second intervals
for 30 minutes onto an audio cassette tape. One member of the group could replay the tape
on a personal cassette player, releasing both hands for recording the information, whilst
relaying the ‘instant’ for recording to the rest of the group.
5. Descriptions of the behaviours that might be displayed
So that all the students can unambiguously complete the tick boxes on the instantaneous
recording sheets, detailed descriptions of all the terms used on the sheets are provided here.
Individual ringtailed lemurs under observation should be identified as adult or juvenile (on
the basis of size). Students are unlikely to observe differences between the sexes.
However, in some zoos, male and female ringtailed lemurs are housed in separate exhibits,
as breeding of these hardy primates in captivity has become too successful. The number of
lemurs located in close proximity (less than 2 m away) to the lemur being observed should
be recorded as the group size . Any other observations that might affect the behaviour of
the observed lemur, e.g. sudden noise, presence of a keeper, interaction with other lemurs
or humans, should be recorded in the notes section.
The location of the lemur being observed should be categorised as follows:
Inside
Outside
Ground
Trees
in the indoor enclosure
in the outdoor enclosure
either inside or outside, at ground level
either inside or outside, in trees or branches/logs provided as an ‘above ground’ environment
Furniture
either inside or outside, on zoo furniture i.e. artificial platforms provided,
such as feeding tables, visitor walk-ways, play equipment etc.
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity
Terminology
Description/Definition____________________
Feeding
Activity
obtaining food by grasping by paw or eating
directly from the ground or branches
Diet
liquids and solids consumed
Water
Plant
Leaf
Non-leaf
Non-plant
drinking from pools, water dispensers and other
receptacles in the enclosure
herbivorous diet
tree leaves
other vegetable/fruit/nut materials
insects foraged within the enclosure
Body part
used
the part of the body used to initially contact the
food
Mouth
Paw
Right
Left
collecting food directly with the mouth
using forelimbs to grasp/hold the food
identification of limb used
as above; both limbs could be used
Terminology
Description/Definition____________________
Resting
remain inactive; not engaged in any other activity
that can be identified
Posture
the resting position adopted by the observed lemur
All fours
inactive, lying horizontally with all four limbs on
the ground
Haunches
adopts an upright sitting position; front paws may
or may not be on the ground
Forelimbs apart
Forelimbs together
Huddle
forelimbs abducted, usually when facing the sun
forelimbs not abducted
rest in a curled position either on its own or in a
group
Eyes
Open
Closed
pupils visible
eyelids cover eyes
Vigilant
although resting, the observed lemur’s head is
raise and/or ears are cocked; it is ready to react
any sudden stimulus
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity
Terminology
Description/Definition____________________
Moving
locomotion of any description
Mode of travel
the method used to move
Walk
Scamper
move slowly on all fours on the ground
move horizontally on all fours quic kly, on the
ground or in the trees, play chase/charge/flee from
other lemurs
move vertically, up trees, branches or zoo furniture
hop or jump on the ground; jumping between
adjacent horizontal branches in the tree
Climb
Leap
Tail
Up
Activity
Down
tail held vertically, waved forward or over the head
or swung from side to side in the air
tail inactive
Terminology
Description/Definition____________________
Grooming
repeatedly stroke the fur using the dental comb and/or
tongue
Groomee
the lemur being groomed
Self
Other
the lemur grooms itself
the lemur being observed grooms another
individual
the groomee is full size
the groomee is smaller than an adult
mutual grooming which occurs simultaneously or
in close alternation with a partner
Adult
Juvenile
Reciprocated
Body part
the part of the body being groomed
Head
Torso
front and back, including ears, face and muzzle
chest and abdominal regions, including
urinogenital areas
anterior surfaces of the body
posterior surfaces of the body
upper limbs
lower limbs
identification of limb used
as above
any part of the tail
Front
Back
Forelimb
Hind limb
Right
Left
Tail
6. Analysis of Results
1
Continuous recording
These results can be used to generate the percentage time that individuals spend in each
activity. All the students should pool their results to complete the Summary table of Time
Budgets (Sheet 1B) to generate a mean percentage time for each activity. These results
could be presented as pie charts.
It must be emphasised that the time of day when the observations take place is highly
relevant and especially important for captive animals in indoor enclosures, as they may be
fed at the same time each day.
A comparison of time budgets for different individuals (male/female, adult/juvenile) could
be made and an inferential statistical test could be used, if appropriate, to see if there is any
significant difference within the data.
2
Instantaneous recording
These results can be used to generate the frequency of occurrence of each of the behaviours
under observation, which could also be presented as a pie chart for each individual. To see
whether the frequency of one activity is engaged in significantly more frequently than
another, the Chi-squared test could be used.
Diagrammatic representation of data might be possible too. A level Psychology students
may be familiar with the work of Jourard (1966) on human body accessibility by other
humans. This technique could be adapted using a lemur-body outline (provided as a
student worksheet – see page 16) to illustrate the body parts that are most frequently
groomed by the lemurs, and, perhaps, to which sex and age groups the groomer and
groomee belong.
7. Discussion of Results
Whilst completing the continuous method of recording observations, students may notice
that each of the behavioural activities can be described in much greater detail, leading to
the notion of constructing ethograms. The ethogram provided could be evaluated in terms
of its effectiveness in covering the range of activities they observed.
The wealth of data on the instantaneous recording sheets should prompt a wide-ranging
discussion on the complex behaviour of ringtailed lemurs. Indeed the very location of the
lemurs could trigger consideration of the proportion of time spent inside or out, and
whether this is related to the time of day or year. Evidence for the terrestrial nature of
ringtailed lemurs may be supported by comparing the relative amount of time spent in the
trees and on the ground.
There has been a considerable amount of published research into the behaviour of these
animals, both in the wild and in captivity. Selections from this research, relevant to the
four activities studied in this project, are provided to stimulate further debate. Students can
evaluate their results in the light of this research and suggest further studies that could
develop from this work.
8. Research synopsis
Time budgets
•
Sussman (1964) completed individual activity records for ringtailed lemurs in the wild.
He found that they spent much of the afternoon in unshaded areas of the forest,
‘sunning’ to help maintain body temperature. In this way they could utilise habitats
with large ranges of ambient temperatures. He also noted that they fed in two bouts
during the day. Increasingly, zoos are working to provide enclosures in captivity which
enable the animals to behave in as natural a manner as possible. Evidence from time
budgets can be useful in judging their success.
Feeding
•
A study by Sussman (1974) of ringtailed (L. catta) and brown (L. fulvus) lemurs coexisting in the wild, showed that L. catta spent only 43% of its feeding time devouring
leaves compared to 89% for L. fulvus. This difference could be related to the different
habitats occupied by the 2 species. L. catta has a greater opportunity to exploit a wider
range of foods as it moves through all the forest layers, whereas L. fulvus has a more
restricted range.
•
In Primate Societies, Richard refers to the work of Sheine who compared the efficiency
of leaf digestion in L. catta and L. fulvus in captivity. The relative inefficiency of L.
fulvus in digesting leaf material could be explained by it being outcompeted in the past
by now-extinct species.
•
Manning and Chamberlain (1990) investigated the left-side cradling preference in great
apes. Their results indicate that this behaviour probably originated about 6-8 million
years ago, in the common ancestor of African apes and humans. Observations of this
behaviour in Old World monkeys could help to determine the origin of this behaviour.
Students might observe preference in ‘handedness’ in lemurs whilst they are feeding.
Grooming
•
In a study of a group of rhesus monkeys by Sade in 1965 described by Chalmers
(1979), the frequency of grooming between related individuals was 4 times greater than
that of non-relatives.
•
O’Brien (1993) has reported that allogrooming in female wedge-capped capuchin
monkeys has an affiliative function. Grooming sessions tend to be more frequent and
longer in duration with equal balance between partners than in unreciprocated and
appeasement grooming interactions.
Moving
•
Comparisons of the feet of 2 species of lemur (L. catta and L. fulvus rufus) were
reported by Sussman in Prosimian Behaviour. In L. f. rufus the heel is covered in hair,
whereas hair is absent from the heel in L. catta. The foot of L. catta closely resembles
that of monkeys. Further evidence of the link between these morphological differences
and the habitat preferences (ground and trees) of the 2 species could be obtained from
prepared casts of the feet and analysis of their movement.
•
In Social Behaviour in Primates, Chalmers describes the relative lack of independent
mobility in the digits of lemurs. This supports the view that in evolution from the
prosimians towards man, the digits become gradually more independent and more
mobile.
Resting
•
Evans and Goy (1968) have reported that the occurrence of huddling in ringtailed
lemurs could perhaps be linked to the strength of the affiliative bonds in the group. In
the same paper they have reported that synchronisation of oestrous occurs in females
stimulated by male odours distributed in tail displays. This is a distinct advantage as
mating is restricted to a brief period with a maximum of 3 ovulations per season.
9. Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour for funding the
project via a Teacher Researcher Fellowship. Michael Dockery (ASAB Education Officer)
has provided constant support throughout the development of these materials and I am
indebted to him for his many constructive suggestions. John Baumber (Headteacher),
colleagues and students at Rivington and Blackrod High School have all assisted in one
way or another to ena ble me to work on the project.
My thanks are also due to Dr. Mike Hansell (University of Glasgow and Secretary of the
ASAB Education Committee) for his encouragement and provision of the lemur skull
photographs and Nan Swanney (Education Officer at Blackpool Zoo) for support and
access to the lemur populations.
Tom Mather (Lytham St. Anne’s High School) trialled the project with his Psychology
Students, Judy Evans produced the illustrations, Mick Hoult (MMU) provided the cover
photograph and Miranda Cahill and Lauren Kavanagh assisted in the initial data collection.
10. Bibliography
Chalmers, N. (1979) Social Behaviour in Primates: London: Edward Arnold.
Dockery, M. and Reiss, M. (1996) Animl Behaviour – Practical work and data response
exercises for sixth form students: London: ASAB
* Evans, C. S. and Goy, R. W. (1968) Social behaviour and reproductive cycles in captive
ringtailed lemurs. J. Zool., Lond. 156 : 181-197.
* Jourard, S. M. (1966) An exploratory study of body accessibility. Brit. J. Soial and
Clinical Psychol. 5 : 221-231.
* Manning, J. T. and Chamberlain, A. T. (1990) The left-side cradling preference in great
apes. Anim. Behav. 39 : 1224-1227.
* O’Brien, T. G. (1993) Allogrooming behaviour among adult female wedge-capped
capuchin monkeys. Anim. Behav. 46 : 499-510.
Pereira, M. E. and Kappeler, P. M. (1997) Divergent systems of agonistic behaviour in
lemurid primates. Behaviour 134 : 225-274.
Richard, A. F. (1986) Malagasy prosimians: female dominance. In Primate Societies:
Smuts (ed.) Univ of Chicago Pr.
Sussman, R. W. (1974) Ecological distinctions in sympatric species of lemur. In Prosimian
Behaviour: Martin, R. D. (ed.) London: Duckworth.
* Wilshaw, J. (1998) Time budgets: advice for A level students carrying out this type of
study. ASAB Feedback 13 : 11-14.
* indicates those papers which are available on loan from the ASAB Education Officer.
11. Useful addresses
Dr. Michael Dockery, Education officer, ASAB
Dept. of Biological Sciences, Loxford Tower, Manchester
Metropolitan University, Higher Chatham Street, Manchester
M15 6HA
Tel: 0161 247 1149
e-mail: m.dockery@mmu.ac.uk
The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland
Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY
Tel: 0171 586 0230; Fax: 0171 722 4427
e-mail: fedzoo@zsi.org
Using the Altavista search engine on the world wide web, over 9,000 links are provided for
ringtailed lemurs! Useful starting points include :
www.duke.edu/web/primate
www.birminghamzoo.com/ao/mammal/rtlemur.htm
www.duke.edu/web/primate/lemgal.htm
and if you want an amusing half hour:
www.bookcase.com/library/faq/archive/lemur-faq/part2.htm
12. Student Worksheets
Instructions for students provides details of the two recording methods.
Recording Sheer 1A can be used by students to record continually the time spent by a
particular animal in each of the four activities. For each individual animal the percentage
time spent on each activity can be calculated.
Recording Sheet 1B can be used to pool the data collected by a group of observers.
Recording Sheets 2F, 2G,2M and 2R should be provided to a group of students observing
a particular animal to record exactly what the individual is doing at each thirty second
interval during the observation period. The sheets for each activity could be photocopied
back to back for ease of recording up to thirty minutes of observation. Summary boxes at
the end of each activity sheet will enable students to generate frequencies for each of the
four activities.
Lemur body outline (after Jourard (1966)) provides an alternative method for recording
the parts of the body being groomed. Tally marks could be used to record the frequency of
grooming for different parts of the body.
Instructions for students
1. Continuous recording
Working in groups of two (an observer/timer and a recorder), you require a clip board, a
Continuous Recording Sheet 1A and a stop-clock.
What to do:
• Select an individual to observe.
• Identify your individual as an adult or a juvenile (and male or female, if possible).
• Observe which of the four activities the individual is engaged in.
• Start the clock.
• Observe the animal closely and note the time when the individual changes to a different
activity.
• Record the time spent in this activity in the first row on the sheet.
• Continue to watch the same individual for thirty minutes (or until it goes out of sight),
recording the time in a new row for each change of activity.
• Note any other observations that might have affected the behaviour of your individual,
such as sudden noise, presence of a keeper or interactions with other lemurs. Also
record the date and time of day when the observation took place.
• At the bottom of the recording sheet, convert all times to seconds and calculate the %
time spent on each activity.
2. Instantaneous recording
Working in groups of four (a timer/recorder for feeding; a recorder for moving; a recorder
for resting and a recorder for grooming), you require 4 clipboards , 4 Instantaneous
Recording Sheets (2F, 2M , 2G and 2R) and a stop-clock.
What to do:
• Familiarise yourself with the descriptions used on the recording sheets.
• Select an individual to observe.
• Identify your individual as an adult or juvenile (and male or female, if possible).
• Note precisely where in the enclosure your individual is situated.
• Observe which of the four activities the individual is doing.
• Start the clock.
• At time zero, place a tick in the appropriate boxes on one of the four recording sheets to
describe as accurately as you can the location and the activity of the observed animal.
• Repeat at 30 second intervals for up to thirty minutes (or until your individual goes out
of sight).
• Note any other observations that might have affected the behaviour of your individual,
such as sudden noise, presence of a keeper or interactions with other lemurs. Also
record the date and time of day when the observation took place.
• At the bottom of each sheet, record the total number of observations ( y) you made (the
maximum is 60 if you observed for 30 minutes).
• On each recording sheet, count the number of instants of each type of activity ( f, m, g,
r) and use to calculate the frequency of each activity.
CONTINUOUS SAMPLING
Species:
Feeding
RECORDING SHEET 1A
Time Budget for individual behavioural activities
Individual:
Time engaged in each activity (min.sec)
Grooming
Resting
Moving
Other
Date:
Time of Day:
Notes
Time Spent on each Activity (sec)
Total Observation Time (sec) =
% Time Spent on each Activity
SUMMARY OF CONTINUOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 1B
Summary of Time Budgets for a number of individuals
Species:
%Time Spent
Individual
Time of Day
Feeding
Grooming
Resting
Moving
Other
Notes
Mean % time engaged
in each activity
SUMMARY
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2F
Detailed Observations of Feeding Behaviour
Species:
Individual:
Date:
Location
Feeding / Diet
Body part used Group
Plant
Hand
Water
Non-plant Mouth
Size
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture
Leaf Non-leaf
Right Left
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
1
Time:
Notes
FEEDING
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2F
Detailed Observations of Feeding Behaviour
Species:
Date:
Time:
Feeding / Diet
Body part used Group
Water
Non-plant Mouth
Size
Plant
Hand
Leaf Non-leaf
Right Left
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0
24.5
25.0
25.5
26.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
28.0
28.5
29.0
29.5
Total
Total no. of instances of
observation (y)
Individual:
Location
=
Total no. of occurrences
of Feeding (f)
2
=
Notes
Frequency of Feeding
Behaviour (f/y)
=
FEEDING
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2M
Detailed Observations of Moving Behaviour
Species:
Individual:
Location
Date:
Moving / Mode of Travel
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture Walk Scamper Climb Leap
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
1
Tail
Time:
Group
Size
Notes
Up Down
MOVING
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2M
Detailed Observations of Moving Behaviour
Species:
Individual:
Location
Date:
Moving / Mode of Travel
Tail
Time:
Group
Size
Notes
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture Walk Scamper Climb Leap Up Down
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0
24.5
25.0
25.5
26.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
28.0
28.5
29.0
29.5
Total
Total no. of instances of
observation (y)
=
Total no. of occurrences
of Moving (m)
2
=
Frequency of Moving
Behaviour (m/y)
=
MOVING
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2R
Detailed Observations of Resting Behaviour
Species:
Individual:
Date:
Location
Time:
Resting / Posture
Group
All Fours Haunches; forelimbs Huddle
Eyes
Vigilant Size
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture
Apart
Together
Open Closed
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
1
Notes
RESTING
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2R
Detailed Observations of Resting Behaviour
Species:
Individual:
Date:
Location
Time:
Resting / Posture
Group
All Fours Haunches; forelimbs Huddle
Eyes
Vigilant Size
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture
Apart
Together
Open Closed
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0
24.5
25.0
25.5
26.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
28.0
28.5
29.0
29.5
Total
Total no. of instances of
observation (y)
=
Total no. of occurrences
of Resting (r)
=
2
Notes
Frequency of Resting
Behaviour (r/y)
=
RESTING
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2G
Detailed Observations of Grooming Behaviour
Species:
Individual:
Date:
Location
Time:
Grooming / Groomee
Part of Body
Other
Torso
Self
Recip- Head
Fore Limb Hind Limb
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture
Adult Juvenile rocated
Front Back R
L
R
L
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
1
Group
Tail Size
Notes
GROOMING
INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
RECORDING SHEET 2G
Detailed Observations of Grooming Behaviour
Species:
Individual:
Date:
Location
Time:
Grooming / Groomee
Part of Body
Other
Torso
Self
Recip- Head
Fore Limb Hind Limb
Time (min) Inside Outside Ground Trees Furniture
Adult Juvenile rocated
Front Back R
L
R
L
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0
24.5
25.0
25.5
26.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
28.0
28.5
29.0
29.5
Total
Total no. of instances of
observation (y)
=
Total no. of occurrences
of Grooming (g)
2
=
Group
Tail Size
Notes
Frequency of Grooming
Behaviour (g/y)
=
GROOMING