Download Memory PPT

MEMORY
DO NOW 2/1/2016
 Find
your “Dr. Chew Video Questions”
 Pick up a green handout from the
podium and complete it on your own.
 Goals
for today:
 Complete
Dr. Chew videos
 Introduction to MEMORY MODELS
 Brain Games—Pay Attention
 Reading Guide 1A (?)
ACTIVITY

In your notes write down everything you did yesterday that did NOT
involve memory.

If students appear stumped, assure them that they did engage in a number of activities that did not
involve memory.
After having students consider this question for 3–4 minutes, ask students to provide some responses.

Students may provide accurate but fairly limited responses (e.g., blinking, burping, seeing,
breathing, sleeping, waking up). Affirm these responses and highlight how very limited a human
would be if this were all

Often students will provide responses that do involve memory (e.g., walking, using the bathroom,
eating, talking). These responses provide a great opportunity to emphasize the pervasive role of
memory in our lives and to begin a discussion of the different types of memory (e.g., motor or
procedural memory for walking, semantic memory for our knowledge of the people in our lives).

Students may fail to recognize the extent to which memory impacts behavior and cognitive
functioning. Discuss a very simple task, such as discussing what you want to have for breakfast with
a parent or sibling. Explain that without semantic memory, we would have no knowledge of the
other person or his or her likes or dislikes. We would also not understand the meaning of breakfast
or some of the cultural conventions generally associated with it (e.g., when it is typically eaten,
what types of foods are commonly involved, how formal or informal the dress). Without procedural
Activity Answer Key
D Writing your name

1.

2
A Words to the Star Spangled Banner or other national anthem

3
B Your friend’s birthday party from last week

4.
C Figuring out a tip for a waiter

5.
D Tying your shoe

6.F Flinching after your sibling says “Titanic” when he has repeatedly
splashed

7.
E Being fast to recognize the name of a famous artist when you had only

8.
B What you ate for dinner yesterday

9. G Remembering you need to buy a gift for your friend’s birthday party
tonight

10.

1. A Remembering the parts of the limbic system you with water on previous
occasions of saying this word recently heard the name in passing
C Remembering a phone number as you dial it

In your notes, list the names of the Seven
Dwarfs, from the movie, Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs.

Is it important to NOT share your answers
with anyone, or say anything during this
test.
Turn your paper over.
Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Grouchy
Gabby
Fearful
Sleepy
Smiley
Jumpy
Hopeful
Shy
Droopy
Dopey
Sniffy
Wishful
Puffy
Dumpy
Sneezy
Pop
Grumpy
Bashful
Cheerful
Teach Snorty
Nifty
Happy
Doc Wheezy
Stubby
Poopy
Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashf
2
S’s, 2 D’s, and 3 Emotions:
2 S’s - Sleepy & Sneezy
2 D’s - Dopey & Doc
3 Emotions - Bashful, Happy, &
Grumpy
Difficulty of Task
• Was the exercise easy or difficult?
It depends on what factors?
•Whether you like Disney movies
•how long ago you watched the
movie
•how loud the people are around you
when you are trying to remember
Did you do better on the first or second
memory exercise?
Recall v. Recognition

With recall- you must retrieve the information from your memory
(fill-in-the blank tests).

With recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets
(multiple-choice tests).

Which is easier?
Chapter Overview

Models of how memory works

Encoding, effortful and automatic

Sensory, short-term, and working
memory

Long term storage, helped by
potentiation, the hippocampus, and the
amygdala

Encoding failure, storage decay, and
retrieval failure

Memory construction, misinformation,
and source amnesia

Tips and lessons for improving memory
Why do we need to have memory?

To retain useful skills, knowledge,
and expertise

To recognize familiar people and
places

To build our capacity to use language

To enjoy, share, and sustain culture

To build a sense of self that endures:
what do I believe, value, remember,
and understand?

To go beyond conditioning in learning
from experience, including lessons
from one’s past and from the
experiences of others
Studying Memory
Memory refers to the persistence of
learning over time, through the
storage and retrieval of
information and skills.
Three behaviors show that memory is functioning.

Recall is analogous to “fill-in-the-blank.” You retrieve information previously
learned and unconsciously stored.

Recognition is a form of “multiple choice.” You identify which stimuli match
your stored information.

Relearning is a measure of how much less work it takes you to learn
information you had studied before, even if you don’t recall having seen the
information before.
How Does Memory Work?
An Information-Processing Model
Here is a simplified description of how memory
works:
Encoding  Encoding: the information gets
into our brains in a way that
allows it to be stored
 Storage: the information is
Storage
held in a way that allows it to
later be retrieved
 Retrieval: reactivating and
recalling the information,
Retrieval
producing it in a form similar
to what was encoded
Models of Memory Formation
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
(1968)
1. Stimuli are recorded by our
senses and held briefly in
sensory memory.
2. Some of this information is
processed into short-term
memory and encoded
through rehearsal .
3. Information then moves into
long-term memory where it
can be retrieved later.
Modifying the Model:
 More goes on in
short-term memory
besides rehearsal;
this is now called
working memory.
 Some information
seems to go straight
from sensory
experience into
long-term memory;
this is automatic
processing.
Zooming In on the Model:
From Stimuli to Short-Term Memory
Some of the stimuli we encounter are picked up by our
senses and processed by the sensory organs. This
generates information which enters sensory memory.
 Before this information vanishes from sensory memory,
we select details to pay attention to, and send this
information into working memory for rehearsal and
other processing.

Dual-Track Processing:
Explicit and Implicit Memories
So far, we have been
talking about explicit/
“declarative” memories.
These are facts and
experiences that we can
consciously know and
recall.
Our minds acquire this
information through effortful
processing. Explicit memories
are formed through studying,
rehearsing, thinking,
processing, and then storing
information in long-term
memory.
Some memories are formed
without going through all the
Atkinson-Shiffrin stages. These
are implicit memories, the ones
we are not fully aware of and
thus don’t “declare”/talk about.
These memories are typically
formed through automatic
processing. Implicit memories are
formed without our awareness
that we are building a memory,
and without rehearsal or other
processing in working memory.
Explicit and Implicit
Memories

Some information (like how you go to school today )is
AUTOMATICALLY PROCESSED. It skips encoding and
jumps directly into storage.

These are IMPLICIT MEMORIES

New, or unusual information (like a friend’s new cell
phone #) requires attention and effort.

These are EXPLICIT MEMORIES
Next Steps

Next class we break down strategies for EFFORTFUL PROCESSING.

Watch BRAIN GAMES—Pay Attention.


You do not need to take notes, but participate in each activity and see
how you do.
Reading Guide 1A—we’ll begin on Wednesday.
DO Now

Grab a green “grid sheet” from the podium.

Chat with your table mates about their plans
for mid-winter break.

GOALS FOR TODAY
complete BRAIN GAMES
learn about short-term/working memory
Reading Guide 1A
Working Memory: Functions
The short-term memory is “working” in many ways.
 It holds information not just to rehearse it , but to process it (such
as hearing a word problem in math and doing it in your head).
Auditory
rehearsal
Executive
functions
Visospatial
“sketchpad”
repeating a
password to
memorize it
choosing what
to attend to,
respond to
rearranging
room furniture
in your mind
Short-term memory integrates information from long-term memory
with new information coming in from sensory memory.
The Encoding and
Processing of Memory:
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory refers to the
immediate, very brief recording
of sensory information before it
is processed into short-term,
working, or long-term memory.

We very briefly capture a sensory memory, analogous to an echo or an image, of all
the sensations we take in.

How brief? Sensory memory consists of about a 3 to 4 second echo, or a 1/20th of a
second image.

Evidence of auditory sensory memory, called “echoic” memory, can occur after
someone says, “what did I just say?” Even if you weren’t paying attention, you can
retrieve about the last eight words from echoic memory.
Encoding Memory
Capacity of Short-Term and
Working Memory

If some information is selected from sensory
memory to be sent to short-term memory, how
much information can we hold there?

George Miller (b. 1920) proposed that we can
hold 7 +/-2 information bits (for example, a
string of 5 to 9 letters).

Working Memory, which
uses rehearsal, focus,
analysis, linking, and
other processing, has
greater capacity than
short-term memory. The
capacity of working
memory varies; some
people have better
concentration.
More recent research suggests that the average
person, free from distraction, can hold about:
7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words.

Test:
–V M 3 C A Q 9 L D
Test: see how many of
these letters and
numbers you can recall
after they disappear.
No need for a hyphen
before the V.
Duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)
Lloyd Peterson and Margaret
Peterson wanted to know the
duration of short term memory?
Their experiment (1959):
1. People were given triplets of
consonants (e.g., “VMF”).
2. To prevent rehearsing, the
subjects had to do a
distracting task.
3. People were then tested at
various times for recall.
Result: After 12 seconds, most
memory of the consonants had
decayed and could not be
retrieved.
Working memory
Working memory (also known as short term memory) is the type that
helps us keep track of what is happening to us moment by moment.
But there are limits to the storage capacity of visual material. Let’s
test the limits to your memory.
Next, you will see a series of patterned grids. After you have seen each
pattern, recreate the pattern, by shading the squares on your
worksheets.
Your working memory begins to reach its limit as the patterns get
larger and more complicated.
Smarter UK
remembering
patterns
Now using a pencil and your worksheet, shade the
squares on the grid to recreate the pattern you
just saw
Smarter UK
remembering
patterns
Now using a pencil and your worksheet, shade the
squares on the grid to recreate the pattern you
just saw
Smarter UK
remembering
patterns
Now using a pencil and your worksheet, shade the
squares on the grid to recreate the pattern you
just saw
Smarter UK
remembering
patterns
Now using a pencil and your worksheet, shade the
squares on the grid to recreate the pattern you
just saw
Smarter UK
remembering
patterns
Now using a pencil and your worksheet, shade the
squares on the grid to recreate the pattern you
just saw
Smarter UK
remembering
patterns
Now using a pencil and your worksheet, shade the
squares on the grid to recreate the pattern you
just saw
Smarter UK
Auditory
memory v.
Visual
memory
Is your visual memory better than your auditory memory? Or do you
remember things better when you hear them? Let’s put them to the
test…
Next, you will see a series of objects. Do not write them down but try
to remember them.
Now, using a pen and paper,
write down as many objects
as you can remember in 30
seconds.
Smarter UK
Auditory
memory v.
Visual
How many did you get right?
Smarter UK
memory
Auditory
memory v.
Visual
memory
Now, let’s test your auditory memory.
Your teacher will read out a series of 15 objects. Do not write them
down but listen and try to remember them.
Now, using a pen and paper, write down as many words as you can
remember in 30 seconds.
Smarter UK
Auditory
memory v.
Visual
memory
How many did you get right?
Penguin
Balloon
Bucket
Telephone
Microwave
String
Cat
Iron
Rattle
Picture
Frame
Smarter UK
Kangaroo
Sequin
Crayon
Trousers
Bicycle
Reading Guide

RG’s are intended to help you learn from the text and
not copy down information verbatim.

This is deep processing.

You are writing details in your own words.

The length will vary question/concept to
question/concept and person to person.
The Memory Process
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Stages of Memory
Sequential Process
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Flash Drive
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)
All three processes must occur to remember and,
subsequently, to learn.
Encoding:
Effortful Processing Strategies
If we have short-term
recall of only 7 letters,
but can remember 5
words, doesn’t that mean
we could remember more
than 7 letters if we could
group them into words?
 This is an example of an
effortful processing
strategy, a way to
encode information into
memory to keep it from
decaying and make it
easier to retrieve.
 Effortful processing is
also known as studying.
Examples:

Chunking (grouping)

Mnemonics: images, maps,
and peg-words

Hierarchies/categories

Rehearsal, especially
distributed practice

Deep processing

Semantic processing

Making information
personally meaningful
 Can you remember this list?
Automatic Processing
Some experiences go directly to long-term implicit
memory
Some experiences are processed automatically into implicit
memory, without any effortful/working memory processing:

procedural memory, such as knowing how to ride a bike, and well-practiced
knowledge such as word meanings

conditioned associations, such as a smell that triggers thoughts of a favorite place

information about space, such as being able to picture where things are after walking
through a room

information about time, such as retracing a sequence of events if you lost something

information about frequency, such as thinking, “I just noticed that this is the third
texting driver I’ve passed today.”
Effortful Processing Strategies
Chunking

Why are credit card numbers broken into groups of
four digits? Four “chunks” are easier to encode
(memorize) and recall than 16 individual digits.
 Memorize: ACPCVSSUVROFLNBAQ XIDKKFCFBIANA

Chunking: organizing data into manageable units
XID KKF CFB IAN AAC PCV S SU VRO FNB AQ

Chunking works even better if we can assemble
information into meaningful groups:
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
Effortful Processing Strategies
Mnemonics




A mnemonic is a
Read: plane, cigar, due,
memory “trick” that
shall, candy, vague,
connects information to
pizza, seem, fire, pencil
existing memory
Which words might be
strengths such as
easier to remember?
imagery or structure.
A peg word system
Write down the words
refers to the technique
you can recall.
of visually associating
Lesson: we encode better
new words with an
with the help of images.
existing list that is
already memorized
along with numbers. For
example, “due” can be
pictured written on a
Effortful Processing Strategies
Hierarchies/Categories
We are more likely to recall a concept if we encode it in a
hierarchy, a branching/nested set of categories and subcategories. Below is an example of a hierarchy, using
some of the concepts we have just seen.
Effortful Processing Strategies Hierarchy
Encoding and
Effortful Processing
Chunking
Sensory
memory
Effortful
strategies
Hierarchies
Mnemonics
Capacity of
STM
Effortful Processing Strategies
Rehearsal and Distributed Practice
Massed Practice refers to cramming information all at once.
It is not time-effective.
The best way to
 The spacing effect was first noted by
practice? Consider
Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late
the
1800s. You will develop better
testing effect.
retention and recall, especially in the
Henry Roediger (b.
long run, if you use the same amount
1947) found that if
of study time spread out over many
your distributed
shorter sessions.
practice includes
 This doesn’t mean you have to study
testing
(having
to
every day. Memory researcher Harry
answer questions
Bahrick noted that the longer the
about
the
material),
time between study sessions, the
you will learn more
better the long-term retention, and
and
retain
more
the fewer sessions you need!
than if you merely
Effortful Processing Strategies
Deep/Semantic Processing
When encoding information, we are more likely to
retain it if we deeply process even a simple word list
by focusing on the semantics (meaning) of the words.
“Shallow,”
unsuccessful
processing
refers to
memorizing the
appearance or
sound of
words.
Effortful Processing Strategies
Making Information
Personally Meaningful





Memorize the following
words:
bold truck temper
green run drama
glue chips knob
hard vent rope
We can memorize a set of instructions more easily if we figure
out what they mean rather than seeing them as set of words.
Memorizing meaningful material takes one tenth the effort of
memorizing nonsense syllables.
Actors memorize lines (and students memorize poems) more
easily by deciding on the feelings and meanings behind the
words, so one line flows naturally to the next.
The self-reference effect, relating material to ourselves, aids
encoding and retention.
Now try again, but this time, consider how each word relates to
you.
Tuesday 2/9/2016

DO NOW:
find and turn in to the inbox, reading guides 1A AND 1B—
staple them together

Find your “Digital Detox” handout

Note the due date….
Edit this for 2/11/2016.
Encoding- Getting information in
What we encode
Has to GET into our brains in order for us to use it
We don’t actually have a picture of Darth Vader in our
brains… we have some mental representation that the
cognitive system “understands.”
Same goes for letters/words.
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
1. However novel information (friend’s new
cell-phone number or a new friend’s name)
requires attention and effort.
Automatic Processing
Enormous amount of information is processed
effortlessly due to parallel processing by us,
like:
1. Space: While reading a textbook you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note when the
events take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of how
often things that happened to you.
Give me your example….
Tell
me about your
day thus far…
Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Novel information committed
to memory requires effort,
like learning a concept from a
text.
Such processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories…the adage of
“practice makes perfect” rings
VERY true when it comes to
memory
Through enough rehearsal,
what was effortful becomes
automatic.
Effortful Processing & Memory Effects

This is typically used when learning new things. It requires your attention,
your effort and:
Next-in-line-Effect: When your recall is better for what other people say but
poor for a person just before you in line.
▪
think about when you have had to read aloud in class…you are
worried about what you have to read and aren’t paying attention to
what the person before you said

Rehearsal: can only be encoded into LTM with practice.
Hint...cramming wont work.
Spacing Effect: We retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed
over time
▪
Studies have shown that if you study a bit each night, you’ll
remember the information better than if you cram the night before
a test
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items, but poor for
middle items on a list.
▪
Let’s try this one…
Write down as many U.S. President’s
names you can remember

The Presidents
Washington
J.Adams
Jefferson
Madison
Monroe
JQ Adams
Jackson
Van Buren
Harrison
Tyler
Polk
Taylor
Fillmore
Pierce
Buchanan
Lincoln
A.Johnson
Grant
Hayes
Garfield
Arthur
Cleveland
Harrison
Cleveland
McKinley
T.Roosevelt
Taft
Wilson
Harding
Coolidge
Hoover
FD.Roosevelt
Truman
Eisenhower
Kennedy
L.Johnson
Nixon
Ford
Carter
Reagan
Bush
Clinton
Bush Jr.
Dean
Serial Positioning Effect
 Our
tendency to recall best the last
and first items in a list.
Presidents
Recalled
If we graph an average person remembers presidential list- it
would probably look something like this.
Meaning and memory story
example
1.
2.
3.
4.
Read paragraph
How much can you remember
What if I told you it’s about flying a kite?
Read again- how much could you
remember
Types of Encoding
 Semantic
Encoding: the
encoding of meaning, like the
meaning of words
•Acoustic Encoding: the encoding
of sound, especially the sounds of
words.
•Visual Encoding: the encoding of
picture images.
Which type works best?
Active vs. Passive Processing
• Active
– You visualized
what you were
trying to
remember
– You actively tried
to put it in your
memory
– Same can be said
for studying
• Passive
– Just tried to
memorize, no real
processing
– Only need to
remember right
now
– Same can be said
for studying
Evaluate how you study!
Effortful Processing Strategies
Chunking

Why are credit card numbers broken into groups of
four digits? Four “chunks” are easier to encode
(memorize) and recall than 16 individual digits.
 Memorize: ACPCVSSUVROFLNBAQ XIDKKFCFBIANA

Chunking: organizing data into manageable units
XID KKF CFB IAN AAC PCV S SU VRO FNB AQ

Chunking works even better if we can assemble
information into meaningful groups:
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
Effortful Processing Strategies
Mnemonics




Read: plane, cigar, due,
shall, candy, vague,
pizza, seem, fire, pencil
Which words might be
easier to remember?
Write down the words
you can recall.
Lesson: we encode better
with the help of images.
A mnemonic is a memory
“trick” that connects
information to existing
memory strengths such as
imagery or structure.
A peg word system refers to
the technique of visually
associating new words with
an existing list that is
already memorized along
with numbers. For example,
“due” can be pictured
written on a door, and door
= 4.
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on
capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000
billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986).
The story of Rajan Mahadevan…recited the
first 31, 811 digits of pi (the ratio between
the diameter and circumference of a circle)
which begins 3.14159 & continues on
indefinitely
Neural Circuitry
Research began by looking at individuals
who had parts of the brain removed in
“botched” operations
●
H.M. had surgery for epileptic seizures…
his hippocampus and amygdala on both sides of
the brain were removed
●
Since the surgery in 1953, H.M. has been
unable to create new memories of the events
in his life, although his memories for events
prior to the operation remains normal
●
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkaXN
vzE4pk
●
Brain structures involved in
memory
Brain structures
●
Hippocampus – aids in the initial encoding of info.
Aids in learning and forming of new memories
Cerebral cortex – memories are changed into
relatively permanent memories
●
Amygdala – strengthens memories that have strong
emotional associations. Extreme aggression and fear
emotion
● These emotional connections act as an aid for
access and retrieval
● The amygdala is probably what is responsible for
the persistent and troubling memories associated
with PTSD
●
Where are memories stored?
Memories do not exist in ONE place in
the brain, but reside all over the brain
●
It depends upon the nature of the material being
learned…information storage appears to be linked to
the sites in the brain where the processing of that
information occurs
●
So if it is visual information, the memory
would be stored in the visual cortex…
●
Clive Wearing’s story
Flashbulb memory

A clear moment of an
emotionally
significant moment or
event.

Where were you when?

1. You heard about 9/11

2. You heard about the death
of a family member

3. During the OJ chase
MEASURES OF MEMORY

RECALL

The person must
retrieve information
using EFFORT.

RECOGNITION

The person must
identify an item
amongst other choices
(a multiple choice
exam is an example)
Next Class

Retrieval Cues and Forgetting
DO NOW 2/11/2016

Find your Digital Detox materials.

Staple the yellow sheet to the BACK of your
written response.

Ensure that your name is on the top.

Turn in to the inbox.
Memory -- Retreival
Modified PowerPoint from: Aneeq Ahmad -- Henderson State
University. Worth Publishers © 2007
Goals
●
Can you…
●
●
Describe the process of retrieval.
Explain the 3 types of retrieval:
Recall
●Recognition
●Relearning
●
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the
memory store…it is there, but how do we get it
out to be able to use?
Retrieval cues: stimuli that help people get
information from long-term memory (LTM)
● think of these cues like “search terms” one
would use on an internet search engine, such
as or “clues” to help find your stored memories
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like
anchors that help retrieve memory.
Sleep
Retrieval cues are only as good as the memory
itself…so retrieval will depend up on the type of memory
& how well it was encoded/stored
Types of Retrieval
In recognition the person has to identify an item
amongst others e.g., a multiple-choice test
requires recognition.
1. Name the capital of France
a.
b.
c.
d.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris
Types of Retrieval
In recall the person must retrieve information
using effort, e.g., a fill-in-the blank test requires
recall.
Berlin
1. The capital of Germany is ______.
Recall Exercise…50 States…
Types of Retrieval
In relearning the individual shows how much
time (or effort) is saved when learning material a
second time.
List
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
1 day later
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
Context Effects
Scuba divers recalled more words underwater if
they learned the list underwater, and recalled more
words on land if they learned the list on land
(Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
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Déja Vu
Déja Vu means “"I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation (context) may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience.
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Moods and Memories
Mood-congruent memory -- tendency to recall experiences
that are consistent with one’s current mood…so if you are
happy or in a good mood, you are more likely to recall happy
or positive event while a bad mood will bring about sad or
negative memories
Emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues.
TOT (tip-of-the-tongue)
Phenomenon
Inability to recall a word or idea, while knowing it is
in your memory
most common items of TOT are names and familiar
objects
● Why does it happen?
●
probably due to interference during recall…poor match
between retrieval cues and encoding of information
●
Name them…
Dopey, Sleepy, Sneezy, Happy, Grumpy, Bashful, Doc
●
State capitals…
Forgetting and Memory
Construction
Forgetting
Inability to retrieve information, due to poor
encoding, storage or retrieval.
WHY DO I HAVE THIS
STRING ON MY
FINGER?!?!
I can’t remember, but
it must be something
important…
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we did not
encode…if we aren’t paying attention or
entering the information into our long-term
memory in the first place, we will not be able
to retrieve it later…because it doesn’t exist!
Memory is not magic!
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their
decay…yet not deletion!
● Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve…initial
large drop in retention of info, but it evens out over time
● believe this to be due
to the gradual fading
of the memory trace
in the brain…the
connections aren’t
as strong and
efficient as they
Retaining Spanish
Bahrick (1984) showed a pattern similar to that of
Ebbinghaus with forgetting and retention of
Spanish vocabulary over 50 years.
Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the
memory store it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure
phenomenon. You KNOW it is there, you just can bring
the information out of storage
Interference
Learning some information may disrupt
retrieval of other information.
Proactive Interference – old information interferes with
remembering new information
● Cell phone was stolen…had to get new phone and new
number, but whenever someone asks for your number,
you still give out your old one
Retroactive Interference – learning of new information
interferes with recall of older information
● Currently in a Calculus class, can’t remember how to solve a
geometry question when your younger sibling asks for help
Retroactive Interference
Sleep avoids retroactive interference thus
leading to better recall…so study before you go to
bed for a test in the morning!
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting: People
unknowingly revise their
memories; we don’t
remember items we don’t
WANT to remember
Repression: Defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories from
Culver
Pictures
Sigmund Freud
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur
at any memory stage;
we filter, alter, or lose
much information
during these stages.
Some memory loss is
due to factors other
than “forgetting”
Some memory loss is
due to structural
Amnesia
●Partial or complete loss of memory
●Causes
oPhysical
 Damage to some part of the brain (Alzheimer’s
disease, stroke, brain trauma)
oPsychological
 Can be triggered by some type of traumatic event
 Most memories will return over time (usually within
a few days)
Amnesia
●Types
oAnterograde amnesia - Inability to remember
ongoing events after the incidence of trauma
or the onset of the disease that caused the
amnesia
oRetrograde amnesia - Inability to remember
events that occurred before the incidence of
trauma or the onset of the disease that caused
the amnesia
Welcome back!

Do now: pick up an article from the
podium and an analysis sheet.

Read the article by Elizabeth Loftus.

Complete the reading and the article
analysis sheet.

Once done, compare with a table member
to check for understanding.
Goals for today:

Elizabeth Loftus article analysis

Memory Construction

Picking Cotton

Frontline—eyewitness testimony

Looking ahead: small group project for Wed/Friday


Friday: review project and Kahoot for Memory unit
Next Tuesday = unit exam.

Multiple Choice

1 short answer
Memory Construction

We sometimes alter our memories as we
encode or retrieve them.

Your expectations, schemas, environment may
alter your memories.
Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in
missing pieces of information to make our recall
more coherent or complete
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading
information into one's memory of an event.
● not done to be deceitful…our brain likes nice,
neat, complete pictures, so it fills in the gaps (think
back a couple units to the Gestalt principles)
Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia: attributing an event to the
wrong source we have experienced, heard,
read, or imagined (misattribution).
True vs. False Memories
Just like true perception and illusion, real
memories or memories that seem real are
difficult to discern…so just because a memory
“feels” real, doesn’t mean it IS real!
Our brain can tell the difference between real and false
memories, but we cannot…
● if something was never heard, there would be no
sensory record to be activated in the temporal lobe
o so if the brain was analyzed when you told about
how you heard the false fact, the temporal lobe
would not be activated
Constructed Memories
Elizabeth Loftus has conducted much
research in this arena...
● Contacted parents of college students and
obtained lists of childhood events that the
students were asked to recall
● To those lists were added plausible events that
never happened like, being lost in a shopping
mall, spilling a punch bowl at a wedding or
meeting Bugs Bunny at Disneyworld
(impossible b/c Bugs not a Disney character)
● After repeated recall attempts over a period of
several days, many of the students claimed to
remember the bogus events…all that was
required were some credible suggestions
Don
Shrubshe
Misinformation Effect
Depiction of Accident
Misinformation Effect
Leading Question: About how fats were the cars
going when they smashed into each other?
Eye Witness Testimony
●Is accurate??? Let’s take a test and see…
Eyewitness Testimony & Memory
Construction
Often eyewitness testimony is full of errors…but
it is still one of the main methods used to gain
information about crimes!
Important things to remember:
● People’s recollections are less influenced by leading
questions if forewarned that questions could create
memory bias.
● Passage of time allows original memory to fade, so
ask
right away for more accurate info.
Source Amnesia
(Source Attribution)
• Attributing
to the wrong source
an event we have experienced,
heard about, read about or
imagined.
Next steps for memory
construction