Download Water Boiling Model

Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
SNC-2DE Study Notes
Weather Dynamics:
Define Climate and Weather:
Weather:
a set of environmental conditions encountered day to day, such as a single rainy day or a
thunderstorm.
Climate:
a set of environmental conditions average over many years, such as a desert climate in a
desert or a humid, rainy climate in a rain forest.
Find a Position on the Earth using latitude and longitude:
Longitude:
The angle measured east or west from 0°C line, Prime Meridian which passes through
Greenwich, England. The vertical lines on a map.
Latitude:
The angle measured north or south from the equator. The horizontal lines on a map.
Explain the importance of vast quantities of water to the planet’s weather and the survival of life on this
planet:
 Water has a high albedo, reflecting away solar radiation that would otherwise overheat the Earth
 Is an excellent heat sink, stores energy keeping the Earth warm
 Ocean currents distribute the Sun’s heat throughout the earth
 Vital for humans, animals and plants (farming)
 Weather systems depend greatly on the water cycle
 Most of the sun’s rays hit the Earth at an ocean, this allows the Earth to store more energy than it
would if most of the sun’s rays hit the Earth on land.
Albedo:
A measurement of the percentage of light that an object reflect; the higher the albedo, the
greater the object’s ability to reflect sunlight.
Explain the Occurrence of the Seasons:
 The Earth is tilted at 23.5°
 Summer here occurs when the northern hemisphere is at its maximum tilt towards the sun.
 This allows the sun’s rays to hit the northern hemisphere most directly, at a perpendicular angle,
reducing the amount of energy that bounces off the Earth.
 Winter here occurs when the southern hemisphere is at its maximum tilt towards the sun, or when
we are at the furthest tilt away from the sun.
 The sun’s rays hit us at the greatest angle in winter, resulting in more energy bouncing off Earth.
 Summer in the Northern Hemisphere is winter in the Southern and vice versa.
 June 21; summer solstice; sun over the Tropic of Caner
 December 21; winter solstice; sun over the Tropic of Capricorn
 March 21; Vernal Equinox; spring; sun over equator
 September 23; Autumnal Equinox; autumn; sun over equator
Become Familiar with the EM spectrum:
All parts of the EM spectrum travel at the speed of light, as the EM spectrum is light.
Visible Spectrum:
Radio Waves:
Microwaves:
Infrared:
Ultraviolet:
X Ray:
Gamma Rays
Visible light
Waves used in radios and televisions.
Waves used to cook foods, in microwaves.
Allows remote controls to control televisions.
Rays that cause skin cancer and sunburns.
Rays that penetrate skin, but not bone.
Rays that are given off of radioactive material.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Define and explain Radiation, Conduction and Convection:
Radiation:
The transfer of energy by means of waves, does not require a medium to travel through.
Can travel in a vacuum. An example is light.
Conduction:
The transfer of energy through the collision of particles. Occurs more easily in metals,
because of mobile electrons. When atoms have energy, they vibrate, the more energy, the
more the atom vibrates and eventually it hits another atom and that atom begins to
vibrate. As long is heat is being conducted, the atoms will hit each and constantly
vibrate, creating heat.
Convection:
The vertical transfer of heat by particles in a fluid.
Advection:
The horizontal transfer of heat by particles in a fluid.
Describe the absorption and reflection of energy by the Earth:
 Electromagnetic waves hit the Earth
 27% are reflected off the atmosphere and clouds back into space.
 3% passes through the atmosphere and bounces off the surface of the Earth.
 50% is absorbed by land and water.
 20% is absorbed by clouds.
The amount of energy that bounces off the Earth depends on the albedo of the object.
 Snow has a high albedo
 Black paint has a low albedo
Define heat sink and heat capacity:
Heat Sink:
Any object/material that absorbs energy and becomes warmer. An object that can hold
heat.
Heat Capacity: Measure of how much heat a substance requires to increase its temperature by a ° or how
much heat it releases as its temperature in ° decreases.
Variables:
The variables that affect heat capacity are the mass of the object and the amount of
energy required to heat it 1°C.
Explain using the KMT how heat is transferred by convection, conduction, radiation and give examples
related to weather.
Convection:
Heat is transferred vertically. Energy is transferred to particles in form of heat. This
causes the particles to vibrate, and thus expanding the space a fluid occupies. The
particles begin to rise, as that body of fluid becomes less dense than the surrounding
fluid. Cooler fluid rushes in to fill the space left by the rising fluid and the process
continues. Convection currents are the cause of some of the Earth’s winds, as well as
ocean currents
Conduction:
Heat is transferred by the collision of particles. Energy is transferred to particles in form
of heat, causing the particles to vibrate. The vibrating particles collide with other
particles, causing them to vibrate as well. This sets off a chain reaction that continues
until the energy source is removed. Though barely noticeable in everyday life, heat from
the Earth’s core is conducted to the surface of the Earth. This effect is most noticeable in
volcanoes, where the heat from the Earth’s core has melted rocks.
Radiation:
This is the transfer of heat in the form of waves that we call the electromagnetic
spectrum. This form of energy transfer does not utilize particles. The sun’s energy is an
example of radiation.
Weather Conditions Affecting Conduction:
Hot:
particles move faster, quickening the rate of conduction.
Cold: particles don’t move as fast, slowing the rate of conduction.
Icy:
ice forms as an insulator, prevents friction between object.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Solve Heat Problems. Solve Mixture Problems:
Q:
Quantity of heat, in J.
C:
Specific heat capacity.
M:
Mass, in kg
Δt:
Change in temperature, in °C.
Q = cm Δt
Δt=cm/Q
c=m Δt/Q
m=c Δt/Q
t1= Δt-t2
t2= Δt-t1
lf:
lv:
Latent heat of fusion, solid to liquid; liquid to solid.
Latent heat of vapourization, liquid to gas; gas to liquid.
For H2O – 336,000J/kg
For H2O – 2,268,000J/kg
Qgained = Qlossed
m1 x c1 x Δt1 = m2 x c2 x Δt2
Define atmosphere, altitude, temperature gradient, atmospheric pressure, pressure gradient:
Atmosphere:
The blanket of air and moisture that surrounds the Earth.
Altitude:
The height about sea level, usually measured in metres or kilometres; also called
elevation
Temperature Gradient: The change of temperature of the atmosphere at different altitudes
Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure the air exerts as gravity pulls it toward the centre of Earth; it is
greatest at sea level and decreases at higher altitudes
Pressure Gradient:
A measure of the amount the atmospheric pressure changes across a certain
distance; can be vertical or horizontal
Explain the importance of the atmosphere to life on this planet:
 Protects us from the harsh vacuum of space.
 Oxygen and nitrogen in atmosphere are needed to support life.
 Carbon dioxide needed by green plants to survive.
 Ozone in upper atmosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation, protecting us from harmful radiation.
 Plays a role in the water cycle, as water vapour in the air and in clouds supplies the surface.
 Offers protection from meteors as the friction of any incoming object vapourizes it.
 Circulates air.
Describe and explain applications of temperature and pressure:
Temperature is a measure of heat and pressure is a measure of how much weight is pushing on an
object. We use pressure unknowingly all the time. Atmospheric pressure is what causes
eyedroppers to fill up, vacuums to work and it is what causes winds and weather. Differences in
pressure also allow planes to fly. Differences in temperature are utilized to allow hot air balloons
to float, to allow engineers to fit a metal ring on train wheels, and it necessitates the building of
gaps in structures to allow for the expansion of the building material in different temperatures.
Students will observe, describe and explain the effects of atmospheric pressure.
We can see that the atmosphere exerts pressure through the many experiments we did. In almost every
case, when we isolated a part of the atmosphere inside a container of some sort (thereby maintaining
the same pressure) and then changed the pressure of its surroundings, there would be some sort of
reaction. The atmospheric pressure was quite noticeable in the experiments we did. It was atmospheric
pressure that pushed the water into the eyedropper, it was atmospheric pressure that pushed on the
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
suction cup, holding it down, it was the same pressure that caused the balloon to expand, the cardboard
to stick to the beaker and the different rates of water drainage in the different sized flasks. Therefore,
we have a copious amount of evidence that shows that the atmosphere does indeed exert pressure.
Water Boiling Model
The phenomenological definition of boiling is the existence of sustained bubbles that break free of
the surface. In order for these bubbles to exist, the pressure of the water vapour in the bubble must
equal the pressure of the water and almost all the pressure on the water comes from the
atmosphere. So, the frequency and energy which the water vapour molecules collide / push against
the bubble wall from the inside must equal the pressure exerted by the atmosphere, the energy and
frequency which air molecules collide / push against the bubble from the outside. Heating the
water will increase the energy in the water vapour and consequently increase the pressure inside
the bubbles. Thus, the lower the air pressure, the lower the temperature at which the water will
boil. So, being on top of a mountain would mean that there would be a lower pressure then being
at sea level, and so water would boil faster on top of a mountain because the boiling point is lower
because of the previously stated reason. However, since cooking is a chemical process, it still
takes a certain amount of energy to happen, no matter what the altitude. So, since the water is at a
lower temperature (less energy, less vibrations), it will take longer for the vegetables to gain the
energy required for the chemical process of cooking.
Vacuum Jar Model
When the vacuum pump started, it began to remove air molecules from the space in which the
balloon was contained. This meant there were less air molecules vibrating, which meant less
energy outside the balloon, which meant a lower frequency of collisions with the balloon. Inside
the balloon, the pressure remained the same, which meant the number of molecules stayed the
same. However, when the pressure outside the balloon was decrease, the frequency of the
collisions against the balloon wall, pushing outwards was more then the frequency of collisions
pushing against the balloon wall, pushing inward. Thus, because there was more energy and more
collisions inside the balloon, there was an unbalance of pressure, and so the balloon’s walls were
pushed outward by the higher pressure on the inside of the balloon, increasing the balloon’s size,
in an attempt to equalize the pressure.
Define Hydrosphere. Describe water distribution in the hydrosphere. Describe the water cycle with the
use of a labelled diagram.
Hydrosphere:
A geographic term for all of the Earth’s fresh water, salt water, liquid water, water vapour
and frozen water
Of the World’s Water
97.5% - Salt Water
2.5% - Fresh Water
Of the World’s Fresh Water
87.3% - Glaciers and polar ice caps
12.3% - Underground Water
Of the World’s Surface and Atmospheric Water
90% - Lakes
9% - Atmosphere
1% - Rivers
Water Cycle:
 Radiant energy warms air, land and water.
 Causes sublimation (ice to gas) in glaciers, evaporation of water and transpiration from organisms.
 Collects as water vapour which rises and condenses to form clouds.
 When too much water vapour is collected, the water vapour precipitates.
 The soil absorbs the water, joining the ground water where it reaches oceans, rivers or lakes where
it may stay as a liquid or freeze, starting the cycle again.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Describe the importance to life of the hydrosphere and the water cycle.
All organisms need water to survive.
The water cycle constantly recycles water, circulates water and provides us with water to drink.
Describe the role of energy in the water cycle.
Radiant energy from the sun warms air, land and water, causing evaporation, sublimation or
transpiration.
The lack of energy is what causes condensation, precipitation and freezing.
Define convective clouds, frontal clouds, orographic clouds. Describe the formation of each .
Convective Clouds:
Convective clouds are produced when the air near the ground absorbs energy from heated surfaces and
becomes warmer and less dense, thus rising. As the warm air rises, it carries water vapour with it,
when the air reaches an altitude where the pressure is lower and the temperature is cooler, the air
molecules begin to lose energy and contract. The water vapour cools to a point where condensation
occurs, spawning clouds. This process can occur wherever solar energy is absorbed by water and other
surfaces.
Frontal Clouds:
Frontal Clouds form when the leading edge or front of a large moving air mass meets with a
contrasting air mass. The warmer air within the warm air mass if forced to rise above the cold air
mass as warm air is less dense than cold air. As the warm air rises, it begins to cool with higher
elevations, causing condensation to occur, also spawning clouds.
Orographic Clouds:
Orographic clouds form when moist air, usually from a body of water meets a mountain range. In
order for the air to travel past the mountain, the air is forced to ascend the mountain. As the air
ascends up the side of a mountain, the air pressure becomes lower causing the air mass to expand and
condense, creating clouds. The side of the mountain where the air rises is called the windward side
and the side where the rain shadow is, is called the leeward side.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Define fog and explain its formation:
Fog is a cloud that forms near ground. It can be produced on clear nights when energy from the
surface radiates upward but it not reflected back to Earth by any clouds, thus allowing the air near
ground to cool and condense, forming clouds. Fog can also occur when warm air passes over
snow-covered ground and when moist sea air drifts over a cold ocean current or seashore. It can
also be formed due to orographic lifting.
Classify Clouds:
Cumulus Clouds:
 billowing and have a round shape
 grow vertically
 indicate instable weather
 result of convection currents or orographic lifting
Stratus Clouds:
 Grow horizontally
 Indicate stable weather
 Result of fronts
 Flattened and layered
Cloud
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus
Cirrostratus
Cumulonimbus
Altostratus
Altocumulus
Stratocumulus
Cumulus
Nimbostratus
Stratus
Description
Thin, wispy cloud made of ice crystals below 8000m
Thin, patchy clouds that form wavy patterns. 6000 to 8000m
Thin, veiled clouds that produce the halos we occasionally see around the Sun and
Moon, 6000 to 800m
Large, darker clouds. Low to about 8000m, sometimes reaching 15000m. (King of
Clouds)
Sheets of gray or blue; The Sun and Moon may appear as if behind frosted glass.
3000 to 7000m
Gray or white puffy clouds, usually not continuous but alternating cloud and clear.
3000 to 7000m
Irregular rolling or puffy clouds, usually following a passing cold front. Below
2000m
Low rounded clouds. Below 2000m
True rain clouds; dark and wet looking. Below 2000m
Low, uniform sheet clouds, often with drizzle. Below 2000m
Solar Energy, Clouds, Earth’s rotation ,Jet Streams, Prevailing Winds, Ocean Currents, Land Masses,
Hydrosphere:
Solar Energy:
During the winter in the Northern Hemisphere, the far north receives no solar energy for months,
so it is extremely cold there. In the rest of the world, the amount of solar energy received depends
on the cloud cover and the angle at which the Sun’s rays strike the Earth. The rays hit most
directly south of the Equator, reaching 23.5 south latitude around December 21 each year. The
sun’s rays also hit most directly around the equator where the area is mostly covered by water.
This is very important, because water has a high heat capacity, allowing the Earth to retain a lot
more energy from sun than if the area around the equator was covered mostly by land.
Cloud Cover:
Clouds help maintain the energy balance on Earth. Clear skies allow solar energy to pass through
the atmosphere and strike the surface, increasing the evaporation rate of water. This causes a
build-up of clouds, which reflect much of the solar energy back into space, thus reducing the
amount reaching the surface. Clouds also absorb infrared radiation both from the Sun and emitted
from Earth’s surface.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Earth’s Rotation:
Earth spins eastward around its axis once every 24h, causing our day-and-night cycle. This
rotation also causes winds to tend to twist toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward
the left in the South Hemisphere (Coriolis Effect).
Jet Stream:
These high-speed winds in the upper troposphere are caused by pressure differences between the
warm and cold regions of the world. They tend to travel in a wavy pattern from west to east. In
winter, the temperature difference, and hence pressure difference is greater than in summer, so the
jet streams are stronger. The jet streams play an important part in weather patterns, as they act like
a wall between air masses. Imagine a powerful river, if you were to run into the river, you would
not be able to reach the other side as the strong currents would drag you away and most likely kill
you. That is the reason why the jet stream acts as a boundary between air masses.
Prevailing Winds:
Large-scale winds help maintain Earth’s energy balance by moving energy from the hot equatorial
regions towards the poles while at the same time moving cool air from the poles toward the
equator. The directions of these winds are complex because of the Coriolis Effect.
Ocean Currents:
Ocean currents also help distribute energy from the equatorial regions towards the poles and cold
water from the polar regions toward the equator. Surface currents are influenced by the winds
above the surface, but when these current hit land, their direction changes. Salt also plays a part in
ocean currents in “deep ocean” currents. When water evaporates, it leaves behind the salt content,
the salt content then sinks as salt is denser than water. This sinking action creates deep ocean
currents that affect the ocean currents. The Gulf of Mexico is an example of the effects of salt.
Land Masses:
Since land has a low heat capacity, it heats up and cools down much more quickly than water.
This influences cloud formation and local weather effects.
The Hydrosphere:
The majority of Earth’s surface is covered with water and ice. Water takes a long time to heat up
and cool down.
Observe Bernoulli’s Principle and account for various observations in terms of this principle:
Bernoulli’s Law:Where the speed of a fluid is high, the pressure is low and where the speed is low, the
pressure is high.
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Low pressure created when two cars pass each other, created by their immense speed.
The number of particles on the other side of the subway cars outnumbers the amount of
particles on the low pressure side of the cars
More particles are hitting the car from the other side than the low pressure side causing
the cars to lean in.
The speed of the car creates an area of low pressure.
The air on the platform rush towards the area of low pressure, pushing people towards the
tracks.
Define Weather system, air mass, warm front, cold front, occluded front, cyclone, cylogenesis, stationary
front, anticyclone. Explain the formation of a storm.
Weather Systems:
A set of temperature, wind, pressure and moisture conditions, for a certain region, that moves as a
unit for a period of days.
Air Mass:
A large body of air in which the temperature and moisture content at a specific altitude are fairly
uniform.
Warm Front:
The leading edge of a warm air mass
Cold Front:
The leading edge of a cold air mass
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June 12, 2001
Occluded Front:
The front that forms when a cold front catches up to an overtakes a warm front; the warm air is lifted
above the surface of Earth and cut off, or occluded from the cooler air below and the storm weakens.
Cyclone:
A low pressure, swirling air mass; winds in a cyclonic storm move counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the South Hemisphere.
Cylogenesis:
The process of creating a cyclone
Stationary Front:
An unmoving front between a warm air mass and a cold air mass; usually means stable weather until
the air masses begin to move.
Anticyclone:
A high pressure system that rotates clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Low pressure weather systems bring cloudy weather and stormy weather.
 Cold and warm air mass meet, because of their different properties, the two air masses do not mix
instead form a boundary, called the front.
 The jet stream pulls in air from the air masses, creating an area of low pressure near the ground.
 This creates an area of low-pressure near the ground that draws in more air.
 The warm front rises over, because it is less dense and more of the warm air is being pulled away
by the jet stream, because it is less dense.
 As the warm air rises, the air starts to cool and the water vapour within condenses to form
billowing cumulous clouds as the air continues to rise.
 The storm ends when an occluded front occurs, the cold air mass cuts the warm air mass off from
the ground, taking away its supply of air, ending the storm.
Explain drizzle, rain, freezing rain, snow, ice pellets or sleet:
Type of Precipitation
Drizzle
Rain
Freezing Rain
1.
2.
Formation of Precipitation (Different Forms)
Water droplets are formed in cumulonimbus clouds
Water droplets collide and form drops; thus creating drizzle
Drizzle consists of fine water droplets between 40m (micrometers) and 0.5mm
in diameter. Depending on the intensity of precipitation, both rain and drizzle can
be classified as light, moderate and heavy.
1.
Water droplets are formed in cumulonimbus clouds
2.
Water droplets collide and form drops;
3.
Water drops collide and form larger drops; thus creating rain
Rain consists of falling water droplets between about 0.5mm and 5mm in
diameter. If a larger drop forms, it breaks into pieces as it falls through the air.
1. Water droplets are formed in cumulonimbus clouds
2. Water droplets collide and form drops
3. Water drops collide and form larger drops
4. Rains strikes a cold surface; thus creating freezing rain
When raindrops are close to freezing and strike a cold object on or near the
ground, the drops freeze almost instantly.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Snow
1.
2.
Water droplets and a few ice crystals form from cumulonimbus clouds
Ice crystals grow and combine to form snowflakes
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Snowflakes that fall to the ground directly result in dry snow.
Snowflakes that fall to the ground after being exposed to warm air
results in wet snow.
Snow is formed when water vapour crystallizes on tiny particles of dust and other
solid substances, such as smoke. Snow only forms when the air temperature, and
therefore the water vapour, has cooled below 0°C.
1. Water droplets and a few ice crystals form from cumulonimbus clouds
2. Ice crystals grow and combine to form snowflakes
3. The snowflakes are exposed to warm air and then to cold air; thus
creating ice pellets or sleet
Ice Pellets (Sleet)
Ice Pellets, also known as sleet, are a solid form of water. They form when snow
falls through a warm layer of air, partially melting, and then falls through a layer
of air below 0°C. The resulting beads of ice are hard enough to bounce off the
cold ground when they strike it.
Explain the formation of dew and frost and distinguish these from precipitation :
 Dew forms when air cools near the ground. The water vapour in this air condenses on a cool
surface where the temperature is above freezing.
 Frost forms when air cools near the ground. The water vapour in this air sublimates on a cool
surface where the temperature is below freezing.
 Different from precipitation as there is no falling action.
Explain the different types of transformations of water vapour in the atmosphere and their effects:
Draw water evaporating first.
Ice Crystals and
Water Droplets
Form
Cloud
Cloud
Water Droplets Form
Wet Snow
Water Droplets Collide
and Form Drops
Warm Air
Warm Air
Ice Crystals
Combine
and Form
Snowflakes
Cold Air
Collide and Form
Larger Drops
Ice Pellets/Sleet
Drizzle
Cold Surface
Rain
Freezing Rain
Wet Snow
Dry Snow
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June 12, 2001
Define humidity, relative humidity, saturated air, dew point, psychrometer. Describe examples of
Canadian technology in meteorology:
Humidity:
Relative Humidity:
Saturated Air:
Dew Point:
A measure of the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere; the more water
vapour in the atmosphere, the more humid it becomes.
The measure of the amount of water vapour actually in the air as a % of the
maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold at that temperature.
When air reaches saturation, this means that, at a particular temperature, air is
holding its maximum amount of water vapour possible.
The temperature at which dew forms; few forms when air reaches it saturation
temperature.
Meteorology Technology:
 Weather satellites gather weather-related data, images and relay them to stations on the ground.
 High orbit satellites in orbit around the Earth, detect electromagnetic radiation from various levels
of atmosphere.
 Provide images using visible light and take infrared images.
 Lower-Orbit satellites use infrared and microwaves to detect changes in the temperature and water
vapour at various levels of the atmosphere. Also detect wind patterns.
 Weather balloons can also collect data on winds.
Describe the Greenhouse Effect.
The process by which gases build up thermal energy (heat) in the atmosphere by absorbing
infrared radiation from Earth’s surface is the Greenhouse Effect. When solar energy is absorbed
by the Earth’s atmosphere or surface, it can be re-emitted as infrared radiation that can pass
through some atmospheric gases like nitrogen and oxygen, but is absorbed by greenhouse gases
(atmospheric gases that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation: water vapour, CO2, methane,
nitrous oxides, ozone and CFC’s). This increases the temperature of these molecules which reemit infrared energy to the surface, helping to maintain the range of temperatures that support life
on Earth. In addition to natural events that create greenhouse gases (evaporation, transpiration,
forest fires caused by lightening, there are many human activities that create greenhouse gases.
For example, burning fossil fuels and using air condition can cause greenhouse gases to find their
way into the atmosphere. Also, ground level ozone is created when solar radiation interacts with
natural gases and emissions from industries and vehicles.
Describe the ozone layer:
Ozone is a greenhouse gas and molecularly, consists of three oxygen atoms. Ground level ozone
is harmful to humans and the environment, but upper-level ozone (between 10 and 50 km) is
extremely important because it absorbs UV radiation from the Sun, preventing it from reaching the
Earth’s surface. UV radiation can be very harmful to humans, causing skin cancer and cataracts.
It can damage plants and agricultural productivity. Also, it can reach the upper levels of the
oceans, interfering with the production of plankton, the beginning of the food web involving krill,
fish, seabirds, penguins, whales, etc. Ozone depletion is caused by the use of CFCs, which drift
into the stratosphere and break apart, creating chlorine which destroys ozone.
Investigate factors which affect the development, severity and movement of global and local weather
systems.
 Any adjacent land, as land can affect weather systems as land heats and cools very quickly
and can store less energy than water.
 The season, as the climate in the area during different seasons differ considerably. In
different seasons, the amount of solar radiation can differ due to the tilt of the Earth, the
temperature of the ocean currents also change affect weather systems as well.
 When contrasting air masses, they create a front that can affect the weather system as front
can lead to storms and precipitation.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
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The amount of atmospheric pressure in different areas can affect weather systems as energy
always flow from areas of high pressure to low pressure, creating winds.
Air masses also affect weather systems as they bring air with different characteristics. A
warm, moist air mass will bring warmer temperatures and possibly precipitation.
Pollution affects the weather as well, things such as oil spills change the ocean currents and
the density of currents changing the weather. Also, carbon emissions trap heat in the earth,
slowly causing the average temperature to rise.
Ocean currents are great moderators of energy as water is a good heat sink. The air above
ocean currents take the characteristics of the ocean current, thus affecting the weather system
around that area.
Phenomena such as El Nino and El Nina are phenomena that change the way ocean currents
and winds sometimes blow, greatly affecting the weather system.
Weather Unit:
Things worth studying for not included in this study note or on the learning outcomes include all
labs, such as the heat labs, pressure labs, levels of the atmosphere and 13.13 for the vector
diagram.
Chemistry Unit:
Classify matter as: elements, pure substances, compounds, heterogeneous mixtures and solutions.
Elements:
A pure substance that cannot be broken down any further.
Pure Substance:
A substance that consists of only 1 kind of particle or element.
Compound:
A pure substance that consists of more than one kind of element in a fixed proportion; can be
written as a chemical formula.
Heterogeneous Mixture:
A mixture the consists of substances that can be taken apart easily. Not in a uniform proportion.
An example is sand with pebbles in it, or pizza.
Homogenous Mixture/Solution:
A mixture that consists of substances that cannot be easily taken apart. There is a uniform
proportion of the substances throughout and the different substances cannot be easily
distinguished. An example is dissolving salt in water.
Identify properties of matter as physical or chemical:
Physical Properties:
A characteristic or description of a substances, such as the state of matter at room temperature,
hardness, melting and boiling points, odour, solubility and colour.
Chemical Property:
The characteristic behaviour that occurs when a substance interacts with another to become a new
substance.
Physical Change:
Change in the size, form of a substance, but doesn’t change any chemical properties.
Chemical Change:
The alteration of a substance into one or more different substances with different properties; also
called chemical reaction.
Colour Change
Heat or Light is Given Off
Bubbles of gas are formed.
A Precipitate is formed
The Change is difficult to reverse.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Define reactants and products:
Reactants:
The starting material of a chemical reaction.
Product:
The substance produced in a chemical reaction.
Recognizing elements:
Oxygen Gas:
Indicated if a glowing splint busts into flames when placed in the gas.
Carbon Dioxide: Indicated if limewater solution turns milky when gas bubbled into it. Flaming splint is
extinguished.
Hydrogen Gas: Indicated if flaming splint causes ‘pop’ sound in gas.
Water Vapour: Indicated if cobalt chloride test paper changes from blue to pink.
WHMIS Symbols:
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
Most automobile products at flammable and poisonous.
Most cleaning products are corrosive and poisonous.
Most paint products are flammable and poisonous.
Most pesticides are just poisonous.
Compressed Gas
Flammable
Poisonous and Infectious Material Biohazard
Immediate and Toxic Effects
Oxidizing Material
Corrosive
Poisonous and Infectious Material Dangeriously Reactive
State the Periodic Law:
Chemical elements are arranged according to their atomic number on the Periodic Table, thus
they’re arranged into chemical families (columns) with similar chemical and physical properties.
Identify elements as belonging to selected chemical families: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens
and noble gases
Alkali Metals:
Names all end with ium, ionic charge of 1+, outer orbits = 1e-. They’re shiny, silver metals and
form compounds that are white solids, soluble in water.
Alkaline Earth Metals:
Names all end with ium, ionic charge of 2-, outer orbits = 2e-. They’re shiny, silvery metals, form
compounds that are insoluble in water.
Halogens:
Names all end with ine, ionic charge of 1-, outer orbits = 7e-. They all have similar properties
such as being non-metal, poisonous and very reactive.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Noble Gases:
Names all end with on, except for helium. Completely stable, have full valence shells, very
unreactive and are in a gas form at room temperature.
List the properties of metals and non-metals:
Property
Metals
Nonmetals
Lustre
Shiny
Dull
Malleability
Malleable
Brittle
Conductivity
Conductor
Mostly insulators
Reactivity with Acids
Mostly yes
No
State at Room Temperature
Mostly solids
Solids, liquids and gases
Bohr Model:
The Bohr-Model of the atom states that an atom consists of 3 parts, negatively charged electrons,
positively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons.
4e2e6no
6p+
C
Describe the ionic bond, list the properties of ionic compounds.
Ionic Bond:
An ionic bond is a bond formed between two ions, one positively charged, and another
one negatively charged. The two ions exchange ions to gain full valence shells to
become stable.
Only the valence shell is involved in any kind of bonding. The ending of the nonmetal
become ide, like sodium chloride.
Ionic Compounds:
Insoluble, the products of reactions between alkali metals and halogens, sometimes with
alkaline earth metals.
Define the term valence electron.
The electrons located on the valence shell.
Binary Ionic Compounds:
Binary Ionic Compound: A compound that consists of 2 elements, held together by an ionic bond.
Positive Test for Ions:
A positive test for a substance is one that clearly indicates the substance is present. A positive test for a
dissolved ion may produce an insoluble precipitate or it may produce a coloured product or show
conductivity.
Polyatomic Ions:
Groups of atoms that stay together. More than one atom. Oxyacids are compounds formed when
H+ combines with polyatomic ions containing oxygen.
Nitrate = nitric acid
Nitrite = nitrous acid
Describe covalent bonding. List the properties of molecular compounds.
Covalent Bond: A covalent bond is a bond between atoms where electrons are shared between two atoms.
There is no electron sharing, instead, both atoms share electrons as the become
isoelectronic, or stable.
Molecular Compounds:
Compounds that are created through covalent bonds, do not conduct electricity, are
neutrally charged, and consist of most of the compounds in our bodies.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Prefixes:
Prefix
Mono
Di
Tri
Tetra
penta
#of Atoms
1
2
3
4
5
Binary Covalent Bonds:
H2O
Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons: Group of molecular compounds (binary) containing carbon and hydrogen.
Main Uses:
crude oil and natural gas; to power vehicles and heat homes.
Coal is used to generate electricity in power plants.
Petrochemicals are used to make industrial chemicals and consumer products.
Define natural product, synthetic, monomer, polymer, plastic. State the pros and cons of synthetic
products.
Natural Product: A product that is obtained from natural sources, such as animals, plants or minerals.
Synthetic:
Artificially made materials that have been manufactured in the chemical industry.
Monomer:
A single molecule.
Polymer:
A long chain of molecules when smaller molecules links together.
Plastic:
A polymer that has been molded into a certain shape.
Synthetic Pros:
 Antibiotics save thousands of lives.
 Styrofoam cups use fewer resources than natural product cups. Saves tress.
 Synthetic vitamins are cheaper.
 Synthetic diapers are better than cotton, because they the baby dry.
 Plastics are light, more durable and easier to repair.
 Synthetic fertilizers can be made to exact specifications.
 New devices, such as prosthetics, computers and cell phones.
 Synthetics save natural resources.
 Superior sporting equipment.
 Natural products damage the environment, deforesting, animal slaughters and harvests.
Natural Pros:
 Safer drugs.
 Do not use up non-renewable petroleum resources, uses natural renewable resources.
 Losing weight by eating less is safer than synthetic drugs that may have side effects.
 Cotton diapers do not take up landfill space and are reusable.
 Natural foods contain many of the nutrients we need.
 Organic fertilizers allow farmers to recycle animal waste.
 Paper products are easier to recycle than plastic.
 Wood frames for houses are better because they are biodegradable and better insulators.
 Natural materials are safer to use.
 Wool carpets stabilize the humidity in houses by absorbing or releasing moisture.
Law of Conservation of Mass using the atomic theory.
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants
is always equal to the total mass of the products.
 Atoms in chemical reaction cannot change.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Chemical Equations:
What is the formula for the ionic compounds composed of Al and S?
3Al (s) + 2S (s)  Al2S3 (s)
What is the crisscross rule?
The crisscross rule is a rule designed for obtaining the formula of a compound. The following
shows how to use the crisscross rule:
Predicting the product when sodium and chlorine combine:
Na1+ + Cl1Crisscross Rule: Write the ionic charges above the elements. Then crisscross the numbers, using
the crisscrossed number as the number of that element in the product.
1+
Na
1Cl
The formula is NaCl
The total ionic charge is 1(1+) + 1(1-) = 0
What is a covalent bond?
A covalent bond is a bond between atoms where electrons are shared between two atoms. There is
no electron sharing, instead, both atoms share electrons as the become isoelectronic, or stable.
What are the products and reactants of this chemical reaction: copper + silver nitrate  silver +
copper(II) nitrate.
The reactants are copper and silver nitrate and the products are silver and copper(II) nitrate.
Write a word equation for HBr + NaOH  H2O + NaBr.
hydrogen bromide + sodium hydroxide  water + sodium bromide
Balance the following equations:
Ca + HBr  CaBr2 + H2
CaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3  CaSO4 + AlCl3
Al + O2  Al2O3
KNO3 + HBr  KBr + HNO3
Ca + 2HBr  CaBr2 + H2
3CaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3  3CaSO4 + 2AlCl3
4Al + 3O2  2Al2O3
KNO3 + HBr  KBr + HNO3
Use the symbols A, B, C, D, E to make equations that show synthesis reactions, decomposition, single
displacement reactions and double displacement reactions.
Synthesis:
A + B  AB
Decomposition:
AB  A + B
Single Displacement:
A + BC  B + AC
Double Displacement:
AB + CD  AD + CB
Decomposition:
H2CO3  H2O + CO2
Ca(OH)2  CaO + H2O
Li2CO3  Li2O + CO2
2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
2HgO  2Hg + O2
2NaCl  2Na + Cl2
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Write a skeleton equation and a balanced equation for the following reactions.
hydrogen + oxygen  water
carbon dioxide + water  carbonic acid
H + O  H2O
2H + O  H2O
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
Already balanced.
Define reaction rate. Investigate the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.
Reaction Rate: Speed at which a reaction occurs. Various changes and factors affect the speed of a
reaction.
Factors/Variables:
 Temperature affects rate of reaction. The warmer the temperature, the more energy, the
more and faster the molecules move.
 Concentration of oxygen affects speed at which substances burn.
 Thus, the concentration of a solution affects the reaction rate.
 Increasing concentration results in increased reaction rate.
 When molecules are packed into a smaller space, they are more likely to collide as there
is a greater chance of molecules hitting each other.
 As the temperature increases, the speed of the molecule increases.
 The harder molecules hit each other, the greater the chance of breaking chemical bonds to
form new ones.
 Surface area is the amount of area of matter able to react.
 The greater the surface area, the more area there is for collisions to occur, thus increasing
reaction rate.
 The smaller the surface area, the less area there is for collisions to occur, thus decreasing
reaction rate.
 Catalyst is a substance that increases rate of chemical reactions without being consumed
by the reactant. Provides an easier way for reactions to occur.
 Does this by decreasing the amount of collision energy molecules need to break bonds
and form new ones.
 Increases the fraction of effective collisions. For example, instead of 1/1000 being
effective, a catalyst can change it to 1/10 change of being effective.
Explain the affect of a given factor in terms of the KMT and collision theory.
 When molecules in solids are heating, they move more quickly until they break apart and
form a liquid.
 If molecules move slowly, they bounce off when they collide, thus no reaction.
 If molecules move quickly, they hit harder, creating a chance that the hit breaks apart
bonds and allows new bonds to form.
 This is a very small chance though.
Collision Model states that: rate of reaction is affected by the number of collisions of reactant molecules
and the reaction rate becomes faster with:
 Increasing number of collision.
 Increasing chance that collisions are effective.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Describe the role of enzymes and catalysts in controlling the rate of reactions.
Catalysts:
 Increases the percentage of effective hits that break apart bonds.
 Does not become consumed by the reactant.
 The exact rate can be controlled depending on what catalyst used and how much.
Enzymes:
 Biological catalysts.
 Substances that control the rate of reaction in our bodies.
 Allows us to eat many foods, like starch, lactose.
 Enzymes in our blood promote clotting.
Describe the role of energy in chemical reactions. Define endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Role of Energy: Some reactions speed us as they as occur because of the heat released when reactions
occur. Reaction releases heat, temperature goes up, reaction rate goes up. (*like that
perpetual motion machine Lisa built that kept speeding up*)
Endothermic: Chemical reactions that absorb heat energy from surroundings.
Exothermic:
Chemical reactions that release heat energy into the surrounding.
List properties of acids and bases.
Acids:
Sour-tasting, soluble, conductors, contain hydrogen, corrosive. Release hydrogen atoms when
dissolved in water, very reactive.
Bases:
Bitter tasting, soluble, conductors, slippery when in aqueous solution. Release hydroxide ions
when dissolved in water. React with proteins to break them down into smaller molecules.
Name and Write formulas for selected acids and bases.
Acids: The formula begins with hydrogen: H2SO4
Bases: The formula contains hydroxide ions: NaOH
Use the pH scale to compare relative acid or base strength. Calculate ph.
pH:
Power of Hydrogen. A numerical scale, ranging from 0-14, used to measure how acidic or basic a
solution is. Zero representing very acidic and 14 representing very base. The scale can go beyond
the common 0-14 range.
Logarithmic scale, every change of one unit represents 10 fold effect.
Calculate:
pH = -log10[H+]
Ex1. Calculate the pH with hydrogen concentration of 0.1m/L.
H+ = 0.1
pH = -log[0.1]
pH = 1
Ex2. Calculate the power of hydrogen with a pH of 9.
H+ = 10-pH
H+ = 10-9
H+ = 1-9 or 0.000000001
Define Indicator:
A substance that turns a different colour with acids and bases. Indicates the presence of something.
Type
Litmus Paper
Bromthymol Blue
Phenolphthalein
Marble
Acid
Red
Yellow
Clear
Gas created
Base
Blue
Blue
Pink/Purple
clear
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Define strong and weak acids and bases:
Strong Acid:
Concentrated acid, high corrosive, very low pH level.
Weak Acid:
Diluted, close to 7 on the pH scale, often found in foods like lemon juice.
Strong Base:
Concentrated base, high corrosive, very high pH level.
Weak Base:
Diluted base, close to, but above 7 on the pH scale.
List the characteristics of metal and nonmetal oxides:
Metal Oxides: Metal reacting with oxygen to become metal oxides. (rusting)
Metal oxides react in water to form bases.
Nonmetal Oxide:
Nonmetals react with oxygen to make nonmetal oxides.
React in water to form acids.
Explain how acid precipitation is produced:
Nonmetals are released into the atmosphere, such as nitrogen, sulfur acid, carbon dioxide and
such. They react with the oxygen in the air to become nonmetal oxides, then reacting with water
vapour to form acids. This liquid acid then precipitates in the form of rain. Acid precipitation is
classified as rain with a pH lower than 5.6. Destroys forests, kills aquatic life, the health of
people, damages buildings and cars.
Investigate Acid Base neutralization reactions.
Acids and bases react with each other to produce a salt and water.
It’s a double displacement reaction.
Reactions of acids
(Note: these equations are unbalanced and simply show types of reactions)
• With bases
a
2O
• With metals
2
+ MgCl
• With metal oxides
2 + H2O
• With carbonates
ac
for example, HCl + Na2CO3
2O + CO2
Reactions of bases
(Note these equations are unbalanced and simply show types of reactions)
• With acids
for example, HNO3
• With salts
for example, NaOH + KNO3
NO3 + H2O
3
+ KOH
Combustion:
Complete Combustion:
The products are carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy
Incomplete Combustion:
The products are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon and water.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Physics Unit:
Apply the Laws of Exponents:
104 x 107 = 1011 When multiplying, add the exponents together.
105 / 104 = 101 When dividing, subtract the exponents.
86 + 85 85(8+1)
8-2 + 8-3 = 8-3(8+1) = 88 Factor out the like terms, that cancel out identical terms.
Express Answers to problems to the correct number of significant digits:
Significant Digits:
An indication of the certainty of a measurement; the number of certain digits,
plus one estimated digit in a measurement.
Certainty of a digits determined by how many certain digits, PLUS 1, are
obtained by a measuring device.
All digits in a stated value, except for leading zeros are significant digits. The position of the decimal is
unimportant.
Express the numerical answers correctly rounded:
Measurement
Certainty
Significant digits
307.0cm
4
61m/s
2
0.03m
1
0.5060
4
3.00 x 108m/s
3
Certainty Rule for Multiplying and Dividing:
When multiplying or dividing, the answer has the same number of significant digits as the
measurement with the fewest number of significant digits.
Rounding:
If the digit after the digit to be retained as significant is a 5 or greater, round up.
Precision Rule for Adding and Subtracting:
When adding and subtracting measured values of known precision, the answer has the same
number of decimal places as the measured value with the fewest decimal places.
Convert measurements from one metric unit to another:
Ex 1. Convert 95km/h to metres per second.
1h
1min
1000m
x
V = 95 km x
x
= 26m/s
h
60m
60s
1km
Average Speed: Vav = total distance divided by total time for trip.
Vav = ∆d/∆t = d2 – d1
t2 – t1
Overall speed during the trip.
Instantaneous Speed:
Speed at which an object is traveling at a particular instant. Isn’t affect by previous speed or how
long it’s been traveling. Figured by finding the slope of the tangent of a velocity-time graph.
Constant Speed (Uniform Motion):
Instantaneous speed that remains same over a period of time.
Position:
Separation and direction from a reference point.
Vector Quantity:
Quantity that involves a direction, has units and has direction.
Scalar Quantity:
Quantity that involves only size.
Displacement:
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Change in position from d1 to d2
N +
-
W
E +
S
-
Drawing Single Vectors:
State direction
Draw line to stated scale, write size of vector next to line.
Direction of line represents direction of vector, length of line represents size of vector.
Ex1.
Scale: 1cm = 5m
+45m
-20m
∆d = d2 - d1
= +45 – 0
= 45m [F]
∆d = d2 – d1
= -20m – 0
= -20m or 20m [B]
Adding Vectors Along a Straight Line:
Join each vector connecting ‘head’ end of one to the ‘tail’ end of the other.
Find resultant by drawing an arrow from tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.
Resultant displacement ∆dr.
Ex1.
250m
215m
dr
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
∆dr = +250m + (-215m)
= +35m [W]
Summary:








State direction
List givens, indicate variables to be solved.
State scale.
Draw one of the initial vectors to solve.
Join 2nd and additional vector’s head to tail
Draw and label resultant vector
Measure resultant, convert length using scale.
Write statements including size and direction of resultant vector.
Adding Vectors Algebraically:
∆d1 = 250m [W] = -250m
∆d2 = 175m [E] = 175m
∆dr = ∆d1 + ∆d3
= (-250) + (175)
= -75m
= 75m [W]
Summary:
 Indicate which direction, +, which –
 List givens, indicate variable to be solved
 Write equation for adding vectors.
 Substitute numbers with correct signs into equations, solve.
 Write statement with answer.
Combined Method:
50m
60m
∆dr
30m
d
r
= ∆d1 + ∆d2 + ∆d3
= (-30m) + (-50m) + (+60)
= -20m
= 20m [W]
Summary:





State positives and negatives
Sketch labeled vector diagram
Write equation for adding vectors.
Substitute numbers into equations, solve
Write statement.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Adding Vectors at an Angle:
N
WofN EofN
NofE
NofW
W
E
SofW
SofE
WofS EofS
S
Ex1. Person walks 15m[E] then 20m[S] then 30m[W], what is his resultant displacement?
15m [E]
sin
d r
20m
15m
30m [W]
SOH
CAH
C2
= a2 + b 2
= 202 + 152
= 400 + 225
= 625
= 25
c
sin
TOA
= opp/hyp
= 15/25
= 0.6
= 37
Resultant displacement = 25m [S37W]
Angle must always be inside triangle.
20m [S]
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
GRASS:
Given; state given variables
Required; state required variables
Analysis; state formula, make any rearrangements
Solution; show all steps in solving the equation
Statement; make a statement
Distance:
Length of path traveled, a scalar quantity
Displacement:
Change in position, vector quantity.
Uniform Motion:
Constant speed or constant velocity; car in cruise control.
The speed of an object is the slope of the line on a distance-time or position-time graph.
Position-Time Graph:
Curved line represents changing velocity, because the slope of the line is changing.
To find instantaneous velocity at a particular point, draw tangent crossing graph at that point, find
slope.
Displacement:
Area under line on a velocity-time graph.
Velocity:
Speed in stated direction; displacement divided by time.
Average Velocity:
The resultant displacement divided by total time from start to finish; overall rate of change of
position.
Instantaneous Velocity:
Change in position over extremely short period of time, a tangent to the curve on a position-time
graph.
1
2
3
6
Position
4
5
Time
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Start from reference point, moving east at a constant velocity.
Stopped walking for a period of time.
Starts walking home at the same speed as before (similar slope), but in opposite direction.
Walks past home, continues west for a while.
Slows down before stopping and turning back east for home.
Return to original position.
Acceleration:
Rate of change in speed (scalar) or velocity (vector).
Velocity-Time Graph:
1
2
3
Velocity
Time
6
4
5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Runs north at a constant speed.
Sudden stop.
Remains stationary for a period of time.
Sudden change of velocity.
Maintains constant velocity.
Suddenly changes velocity to a slower one before stopping.
% of Error:
your value – accepted value
accepted value
x
100
Relative Motion in One Dimension:
A person walks towards the back of a boat at 1.5m/s. The current is traveling against the direction
of the boat’s travel at 5m/s. If the boat is developing a speed of 8m/s, find the velocity of the
person with respect to the ground.
V = (+8m/s) + (-1.5m/s) + (-5m/s)
V = 1.5m/s wrt to the ground.
Ecology:
This Entire Section is based upon my personal notes and the textbook with no guidance
from a Learning Outcomes Sheet. Use at Your Own Risk.
Ecology:
The study of the relationship of organisms with their environments and with each other.
Abiotic Factors: Non-living parts of the environment, such as water, air, soil, light and temperature.
Biotic Factors: The living parts of the environment, such as plants, animals and rotting logs.
Ecosystem:
Interaction between biotic and abiotic factors within a definite boundary, such as a pond,
meadow, forest or ocean.
 All parts of an ecosystem are interrelated.
 Each part is affect by all other parts.
 If one part changes, all other parts will change as well.
Climate:
Generally determines the nature of an ecosystem. A dry and hot climate will result in
plant and animal life adapted to such an environment.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Creatures in ecosystems such as rain forests grow larger than in other areas because
there’s more water and food, resulting in larger creatures.
Structure of an Ecosystem: Biotic Parts
Habitat:
The place where an organism lives. The habitat of an earthworm is rich soil.
Niche:
The total role of an organism in its community. The niche of female mosquitoes is to
suck blood and lay eggs.
Producers/Autotroph:
Organisms that make their own food. All plants are autotrophs as they use
photosynthesis.
Consumers/Heterotroph:
Organisms that cannot make their own food and must feed on other things.
Decomposer/Saprophyte:
Organisms that break down and feed on non-living organic matter, such as dead plants
and animals.
Food Chain:
a step-by-step sequence linking organisms that feed on each other
Producers:
beginning of the food chain (lowest level), food source, generally plants
Consumers:
continuation of the food chain, containing animals
Herbivores:
animals that eat only plants
Carnivores:
animals that feed off other animals
Omnivores:
animals that eat both plants and animals
Detritus:
waste from plants and animals, including dead remains, detritus food
chains are critical in recycling matter in the ecosystem
Decomposers: organisms that break down detritus to get nutrients for their own
use, while also releasing nutrients into the soil and water, plants and algae grow
off these nutrients
Food Chain and Food Web:
Grass
Producer
1st Trophic Level
Rabbit
1st Order Consumer
2nd Trophic Level
Herbivore
Red Fox
2nd Order Consumer
3rd Trophic Level
st
1 Order Carnivore
Lynx
3rd Order Consumer
4th Trophic Level
nd
2 Order Carnivore
Cougar
4th Order Consumer
5th Trophic Level
rd
3 Order Carnivore
Top Predator
Food Web:
Overriding Factors
Climate
Soil
Plant
Simple Life
Fungi
Animals
Humans as Manipulators
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Human Impact On Extinction:
Loss of Habitat: The growth of cities, agriculture, human activities and industry effect the habitat and can
result in drastic population changes. Something as small as a highway separating a
woodlot from a pond or lake can kill a lot of frogs.
Air and Water Quality:
Human population can effect the air and water quality. Many creatures cannot survive.
An example if acid rain.
Ultraviolet Radiation:
The thinning of the ozone layer by humans allow more UV radiation to reach us. Many
organisms such as frogs cannot handle this kind of radiation, resulting in serious cell
damage.
Climate Changes:
Human activity of many kinds can change the climate in an area, changing swamps and
bogs into fields for example. On a greater scale, global warming.
Classifying Species at Risk:
Extinct:
A species that is no longer found anywhere.
Endangered:
A species that is close to extinction in a large area.
Extirpated:
Any species that no longer exist in one specific location, but can still be found in other
areas.
Threatened:
Any species that is likely to become endangered if factors that make it vulnerable are not
reversed.
Vulnerable:
Any species that is at risk because of low or declining numbers at the fringe of its range
or in some restricted area.
Wolves:
Wolves were hunted to near extinction on North America because they were blamed as a
competitor with humans for bison and other big game. They were also viewed as a
danger to human life and livestock. The result were increased elk population. Wolves
have been reintroduced into some area in order to restore balance.
Ecotones:
Areas between ecosystems that act as a transition, such as the edge between a lake and a
forest.
Ecosystem:
The more biodiversity an ecosystem has, the stronger it is. This is because if a creature
disappears, there are other creatures that can take over its niche and restore balance.
However, there are many creatures that area extremely important, like the wolf. With
their disappearance, elk populations soared because there were no other creatures that
could kill them. However, with wolves gone, coyote population soared, resulting in a
reduction of small mammals (the prey of coyotes).
Energy Movement:
Pyramid of Numbers:
1 cougar must eat several lynx who must eat several red foxes who each must eat many
rabbits who eat lots of grass. As you go down the food chain, the numbers decrease.
However, this pyramid only counts numbers.
Pyramid of Biomass:
Each trophic level shows the total mass of the organism.
Pyramid of Energy:
Each trophic level shows the total energy provided by the organisms. Since all organisms
need energy, this is the most useful.
Thermodynamics:
The first law of thermodynamics states that although energy can be transformed from one
form to another, it cannot be created or destroyed.
The second law of thermodynamics states that during any energy transformation, some of
the energy is converted into an unusable form, most thermal energy (heat) that cannot be
passed on. Each time energy is transformed, some energy is lost from the system. As a
result, the amount of energy available in each step of a chain of transformation is always
less than the amount of energy available at the previous step.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems:
Organic Substances:
Substances that always contain atoms of carbon and hydrogen.
Inorganic Substances:
Substances that does not contain carbon and hydrogen.
The materials in organisms are limited to the atoms and molecules on the planet. Thus, all the
atoms and molecules in us have been recycled over and over again. This recycling comes from
food and eating. The food we take in is broken down and sometimes becomes a part of us.
Pesticides:
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Pesticides are chemicals designed to kill pests, organisms that we consider harmful and
annoying
Our first pesticides were chemicals such as sulfur, mercury, arsenic and lead but these
were poisonous to us as well.
DDT is fat soluble, but no water soluble. Thus, the poison stayed in the fat of the animal
that eat the crops. This moves up the food chain to creatures such as owls that eat a lot of
rabbits that eat a lot of grass. This process is referred to as bioamplificaiton.
Recently, many pests have genetic resistances to pesticides. Because the original
pesticides killed off 90% of the pests. The remaining 10% had some resistance to the
pesticide and reproduced. This new generation of pests all had resistances.
Carbon Cycle:
Photosynthesis: Plants take in carbon dioxide, water and light to make food and release oxygen.
6CO2 + 6H2O + light  C6H12O6 + 6O2
carbon dioxide + water + light = glucose + oxygen
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6H2O + 6CO2
Carbon is held in may forms before being released back into the cycle, this can include, rocks, the
atmosphere, living organisms and the ocean.
Inorganic Carbon Reservoirs:
Stored at CO2 or some other carbon gas in the atmosphere.
Dissolved carbon dioxide in oceans.
Carbon in soil.
Carbon in rocks, most inorganic carbon is found here.
Organic Carbon Reservoirs:
Help in the bodies of living things.
Returned to the carbon cycle once the organism dies.
Carbon atoms can still be locked in dead bodies though, such as fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are the dead bodies of life that are trapped in a low-oxygen environment with
tremendous pressure exerted on them for millions of years.
Nitrogen Cycle:
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Nitrogen atoms are needed by cells to make proteins.
Nitrogen is also needed for the synthesis of DNA.
79% of the Earth’s atmosphere is nitrogen.
For nitrogen to be useful for humans, nitrogen has to be in the nitrate ion, NO 3Nitrogen is converted into nitrates through a process called nitrogen fixation.
Detrification:
The process through which nitrates are broken down into nitrites, then into nitrogen gas and
released into the atmosphere by bacteria that do not require oxygen.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Proteins in
Animals
Proteins
in plants
Atmospheric
Nitrogen
Nitrites
NO 2
Excretions
Death Composition
Nitrification
Nitrogen
Fixing
Bacteria
Ammonia
NH 3
Nitrogen
Fixing
Bacteria
Nitrate loss from Leaching
Phosphorous Cycle:
 Phosphorous is a key element of cell membranes, in the molecules that help release
chemical energy, and in the making of long molecules of DNA and in the calcium
phosphate of bones.
 Living things divert phosphates from the normal rock cycle.
 Phosphorous is water soluble so gets washed away and dissolved out of rock.
 This phosphate is absorbed by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae in the
sea.
 Once into these producers, the phosphate into the food chain and is cycled.
Nutrients:
Nutrients are chemicals that are essential to living things.
The rate of nutrient cycling depends on the rate of decomposition. Decomposition is faster in the
humid, hot climate of the rain forest than in the arctic, so the nutrient cycle is faster in the tropics.
Temperature and oxygen are the two most important factors that affect the rate of decomposition.
Population Growth Patterns:
Natality:
The number of offspring of a species born in one year.
Mortality:
The number of individuals of a species that die in a year.
Immigration: The number of individuals of a species moving into an existing population.
Emigration:
The number of individuals of a species moving out of an existing population.
Open and Closed Populations:
Open Population:
Populations that include natality, mortality, immigration and
emigration.
Population that includes only natality and mortality.
Closed Population:
Population Pyramids:
An ascending pyramid symbolizes population growth.
A less steep pyramid symbolizes stabilizing growth.
A block pyramid symbolizes population decline.
Limits on Population:
Biotic Potential: The maximum number of offspring that a species could produce, if resources
were unlimited. Regulated by 4 factors.
Birth Potential: The number of offspring per birth.
Capacity for Survival:
The number of offspring that reach reproductive age.
Procreation:
The number of times that a species reproduces each year.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Length of Reproductive Life:
The age of sexual maturity and the number of years that an individual can
reproduce.
Limiting Factors:
The environment provides factors that prevent populations from attaining their
biotic potential.
Factors that Cause Population Increase
Factors that Cause Poplulation Decrease
Favourable Light
Favourable Temperature
Favourable Chemical Environment
Sufficient Food
Low number of ineffective predators
Few or weak diseases and parasites
Ability to compete for resources
Too much or too little light
Too cold or too warm
Unfavourable Chemical Environment
Insufficient food
High number of highly effective predators
Many or strong parasites and diseases
Inability to successfully compete for
resources
Carrying Capacity:
The maximum number of individuals of a species that can be supported
indefinitely by an ecosystem.
Populations can exceed this maximum for a short while, but the population will
soon crash due to lack of food, overcrowding and disease and increased
predators.
Limits of Tolerance:
Law of the Minimum:
Law of Tolerance:
The nutrient in least supply is the one that limits growth.
An organism can survive within a certain range of an abiotic factor; above and
below the limit it cannot survive. The greater this range of tolerance, the greater
the organism’s ability to survive.
Density Dependent and Independent Factors:
Density Independent Factors:
Affect the members of a population regardless of population density. Fire and
floods are examples of this.
Density Dependent Factors:
Affect a population because of the density of the population. Food supply,
water quality, sunlight, disease, and territory are density dependent factors.
Biomes:
A collection of ecosystems that are similar or related, usually in the type of plants
Sustainable System:
A system that survives and functions over time
Tundra:
cold desert, limited precipitation, small number of organisms
most important abiotic factor is the shortness of the growing season
no large trees (see below)
permafrost – layer of soil that never thaws
active layer – layer above the permafrost, thaws in summer
- plants have short roots
Boreal Forest: south of the tundra (also known as the taiga), dominated by
conifers, found in every province, comprises 80% of the forest
harsh climate, rapid changes in temperature
no permafrost
acidic soil
drastic changes by seasons
Temperate Deciduous Forest: south of the eastern Boreal forests, dominated by
deciduous trees, maples and oaks
wide ecotone from Boreal
deciduous trees take over conifers gradually moving southward
most precipitation
biodiversity
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Grassland:
same latitude as deciduous forests, extends from eastern Manitoba to the Rockies
not enough water to support trees
previous deliberate fires to maintain the grasslands
most fertile soil in the world
deciduous forests – 3 levels of support
Soil:
Made by breaking down bedrock, broken down by rain, wind, frost, snow and living
things.
Litter:
uppermost layer of soil, decomposed leaves or grasses
Topsoil:
second layer, small particles of rock, air, water, humus, rich supply of minerals
Humus:
decomposing plant and animal matter in the topsoil
Subsoil:
below topsoil, stones mixed with small amounts organic matter
lighter colour, lack of humus
Bedrock:
beneath the soil, layer of rock
soil began as bedrock, but was ‘weathered’ over time
Surface Water: collected precipitation flowing above ground, such as lakes, ponds, rivers
Ground Water: rain, melted snow, etc that seems under the ground
Percolation:
ground water pulled down by gravity
larger the particles comprising the soil, greater the spaces, faster the rate
Water Table:
boundary between the area where ground water is percolating down and
the saturated layer
Leaching:
the process by which water seeps down, but carries organic matter and
minerals along with it
soil pH determined by the nature of the rock it was formed from
fossil fuel burning releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
Acid Deposition: the acidic compounds that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form in the atmosphere and
fall down to earth
Monoculture: ecosystem with only one plant
designed to produce a single food
incubators for pests
Agricultural Technology:
 Only 11% of the earth is suitable for farming.
 New technologies will improve this.
Watering the Desert:
Irrigating water to desert like areas can produce rich, fertile areas for farming.
Water being brought in can evaporate, leaving the salt content behind, eventually making the soil
too salty for crops.
Also very expensive.
Fertilizing the Soil:
Using more nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, fertilizers can drastically increase the amount
of food grown.
Nutrients can run into the ground water and into surface water in lakes and river, stimulating algae
growth.
Abiotic Factors in Lakes:
Littoral Zone: Area extending out from the lakeshore to the point where plants rooted in the
bottom of the lake can no longer be found.
Limnetic Zone: Area of open lake where there is enough light for photosynthesis to occur,
plankton is often found here.
Profundal Zone: Not found in ponds, is below the limnetic zone. In most lakes, only dead plants
and animals are available here. This material is broken down by bacteria or by
other bottom feeding invertebrates and fish, called deitrus feeders.
Jimmy Hao
June 12, 2001
Limnetic
Limit of Effective
Light Penetration
Littoral
Profundal
Changes in Lake Ecosystems:
Oligotrophic:
 Typically deep and cold lakes.
 Low nutrient levels, limiting the amount of producers.
 Due to low level of organisms, very clear water.
Eutrophic:
 Shallow and warm lakes.
 Have a lot of nutrients.
 Often murky due to the amount of life.
Gradually, oligotrophic lakes become eutrophic lakes through a process called eutrophication. This
process can take hundreds or thousands of years. Humans often accelerate this process by adding nutrient
rich waste such as waste and fertilizers.
Seasonal Variations in Canadian Lakes:
Winter:
 Lakes are covered with ice.
 Prevents atmospheric oxygen from dissolving in the water.
 Water is arranged by density underneath the ice.
 If the ice is not transparent or covered by snow, all life underneath will life, as there can
be photosynthesis and no oxygen.
Spring:
 The ice breaks and oxygen can dissolve back in again.
 The top layer of ice melts into water and falls below the less dense water, carrying it’s
important supply of oxygen with it, this is call turnover.
Summer:
 Layers of water are created again, coldest water is at the bottom.
 Epilimnion, the layer of water that warms up in summer.
 Hypolimnion, the lower layer that stays at a low temperature.
 Thermocline, a narrow zone in which the temperature drops rapidly from warm to cold.
 The two layers do not mix, so there is little movement of oxygen.
 Organisms living in the hypolimnion rely on the oxygen brought down from the spring
turnover.
 Organisms in the epilimnion are vulnerable to hot spells where the water hold little
oxygen.
 The amount of oxygen held by water is proportional to the temperature, the hotter it is,
the less oxygen the water can hold.
Fall:
 The top layer cools and falls down, creating another turnover.