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Charged Particles
Charged Particles

... eventually cause it to become negative, which will reverse the field direction. A positive B field is directed into the screen. A negative B field is directed out of the screen (toward you). A positive E field is directed toward the right, a negative E field is pointing left. One or both of the fiel ...
Unit 1 Lesson 1 Coulomb`s Law and the Electric Field With this
Unit 1 Lesson 1 Coulomb`s Law and the Electric Field With this

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... where V is the value of the electric potential and U is the electrical potential energy, and it is made explicit that each is generally a function of position (i.e., changes from place to place). To say that an object has more gravitational potential energy at a higher altitude is equivalent to sayi ...
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... calls into question these theories Lecture 28 – Einstein and relativity – The quantum revolution Lectures 22-25 ...
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... This result corresponds to keeping only the first term of Bernstein’s series expansion, eq. (50) of [1].  In the limit of a cold plasma, where v⊥ = 0, the frequency of the longitudinal wave is ω 2B + ω 2P , which is the so-called upper hybrid resonance frequency. (This result is wellknown to follow ...
A brief introduction to chiral perturbation theory
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... of about 140 MeV, the nearest corresponding 0+ state (if it exists at all) is nearly 700 MeV or so higher in energy. The resolution of this apparent paradox is that the axial symmetry is spontaneously broken, in which case Goldstone’s theorem requires the existence of eight massless pseudoscalar bos ...
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解答 27.28. Model: The electric field is that of three point charges q1

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Spatial and Temporal Wave Functions of Photon

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1 For the capacitor network shown, the potential difference across

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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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